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Sidramagowda Patil S, Soundararajan R, Fukumoto J, Breitzig M, Hernández-Cuervo H, Alleyn M, Lin M, Narala VR, Lockey R, Kolliputi N, Galam L. Mitochondrial Protein Akap1 Deletion Exacerbates Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Mice Exposed to Hyperoxia. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:762840. [PMID: 35370705 PMCID: PMC8964370 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.762840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute lung injury (ALI) and its severe manifestation, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), are treated with high concentrations of supplementary oxygen. However, prolonged exposure to high oxygen concentrations stimulates the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which damages the mitochondria and accumulates misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The mitochondrial protein A-kinase anchoring protein 1 (Akap1) is critical for mitochondrial homeostasis. It is known that Akap1 deficiency results in heart damage, neuronal development impairment, and mitochondrial malfunction in preclinical studies. Our laboratory recently revealed that deleting Akap1 increases the severity of hyperoxia-induced ALI in mice. To assess the role of Akap1 deletion in ER stress in lung injury, wild-type and Akap1−/− mice were exposed to hyperoxia for 48 h. This study indicates that Akap1−/− mice exposed to hyperoxia undergo ER stress, which is associated with an increased expression of BiP, JNK phosphorylation, eIF2α phosphorylation, ER stress-induced cell death, and autophagy. This work demonstrates that deleting Akap1 results in increased ER stress in the lungs of mice and that hyperoxia exacerbates ER stress-related consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahebgowda Sidramagowda Patil
- University of South Florida, Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Ramani Soundararajan
- University of South Florida, Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Jutaro Fukumoto
- University of South Florida, Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Mason Breitzig
- University of South Florida, Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, United States.,Washington University in St. Louis, Brown School, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Helena Hernández-Cuervo
- University of South Florida, Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, United States.,University of South Florida, Department of Molecular Medicine, College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Matthew Alleyn
- University of South Florida, Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Muling Lin
- University of South Florida, Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, United States
| | | | - Richard Lockey
- University of South Florida, Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Narasaiah Kolliputi
- University of South Florida, Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, United States.,University of South Florida, Department of Molecular Medicine, College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Lakshmi Galam
- University of South Florida, Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, United States
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2
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Caliz AD, Vertii A, Fisch V, Yoon S, Yoo HJ, Keaney JF, Kant S. Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 7 in inflammatory, cancer, and neurological diseases. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:979673. [PMID: 36340039 PMCID: PMC9630596 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.979673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress-activated mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 7 (MKK7) is a member of the dual-specificity mitogen-activated protein kinase family. In the human body, MKK7 controls essential physiological processes, including but not limited to proliferation and differentiation in multiple tissues and organs. MKK7, along with the MKK4 pathway, has been implicated in stress-activated activities and biological events that are mediated by c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling. Although numerous studies have been performed to identify the role of JNK in multiple biological processes, there are limited publications that focus on dissecting the independent role of MKK7. Recent research findings have spurred testing via in vivo genetically deficient models, uncovering previously undocumented JNK-independent functions of MKK7. Here we discuss both JNK-dependent and-independent functions of MKK7 in vivo. This review summarizes the role of MKK7 in inflammation, cytokine production, cancer, and neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amada D Caliz
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Anastassiia Vertii
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States
| | - Vijay Fisch
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Soonsang Yoon
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Hyung-Jin Yoo
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - John F Keaney
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Shashi Kant
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
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3
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Castro-Torres RD, Olloquequi J, Etchetto M, Caruana P, Steele L, Leighton KM, Ureña J, Beas-Zarate C, Camins A, Verdaguer E, Auladell C. Dual Mkk4 and Mkk7 Gene Deletion in Adult Mouse Causes an Impairment of Hippocampal Immature Granule Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22179545. [PMID: 34502457 PMCID: PMC8430506 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: The c-Jun-NH2-terminal protein kinase (JNK) is a mitogen-activated protein kinase involved in regulating physiological processes in the central nervous system. However, the dual genetic deletion of Mkk4 and Mkk7 (upstream activators of JNK) in adult mice is not reported. The aim of this study was to induce the genetic deletion of Mkk4/Mkk7 in adult mice and analyze their effect in hippocampal neurogenesis. (2) Methods: To achieve this goal, Actin-CreERT2 (Cre+/-), Mkk4flox/flox, Mkk7flox/flox mice were created. The administration of tamoxifen in these 2-month-old mice induced the gene deletion (Actin-CreERT2 (Cre+/-), Mkk4∆/∆, Mkk7∆/∆ genotype), which was verified by PCR, Western blot, and immunohistochemistry techniques. (3) Results: The levels of MKK4/MKK7 at 7 and 14 days after tamoxifen administration were not eliminated totally in CNS, unlike what happens in the liver and heart. These data could be correlated with the high levels of these proteins in CNS. In the hippocampus, the deletion of Mkk4/Mkk7 induced a misalignment position of immature hippocampal neurons together with alterations in their dendritic architecture pattern and maturation process jointly to the diminution of JNK phosphorylation. (4) Conclusion: All these data supported that the MKK4/MKK7-JNK pathway has a role in adult neurogenic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubén Darío Castro-Torres
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Biology Faculty, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (R.D.C.-T.); (P.C.); (L.S.); (K.-M.L.); (J.U.); (E.V.)
- Laboratory of Neurobiotechnology CUCBA, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Universidad de Guadalajara, Jalisco 45200, Mexico;
| | - Jordi Olloquequi
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Pathology, Health Sciences Faculty, Biomedical Sciences Institute, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Talca 3460000, Chile;
| | - Miren Etchetto
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacy and Food Sciences Faculty, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (M.E.); (A.C.)
- Centre for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pablo Caruana
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Biology Faculty, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (R.D.C.-T.); (P.C.); (L.S.); (K.-M.L.); (J.U.); (E.V.)
| | - Luke Steele
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Biology Faculty, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (R.D.C.-T.); (P.C.); (L.S.); (K.-M.L.); (J.U.); (E.V.)
| | - Kyra-Mae Leighton
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Biology Faculty, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (R.D.C.-T.); (P.C.); (L.S.); (K.-M.L.); (J.U.); (E.V.)
| | - Jesús Ureña
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Biology Faculty, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (R.D.C.-T.); (P.C.); (L.S.); (K.-M.L.); (J.U.); (E.V.)
- Centre for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carlos Beas-Zarate
- Laboratory of Neurobiotechnology CUCBA, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Universidad de Guadalajara, Jalisco 45200, Mexico;
| | - Antoni Camins
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacy and Food Sciences Faculty, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (M.E.); (A.C.)
- Centre for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ester Verdaguer
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Biology Faculty, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (R.D.C.-T.); (P.C.); (L.S.); (K.-M.L.); (J.U.); (E.V.)
- Centre for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carme Auladell
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Biology Faculty, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (R.D.C.-T.); (P.C.); (L.S.); (K.-M.L.); (J.U.); (E.V.)
- Centre for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence:
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Zhi Y, Zhou X, Yu J, Yuan L, Zhang H, Ng DCH, Xu Z, Xu D. Pathophysiological Significance of WDR62 and JNK Signaling in Human Diseases. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:640753. [PMID: 33937237 PMCID: PMC8086514 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.640753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) is highly evolutionarily conserved and plays important roles in a broad range of physiological and pathological processes. The WD40-repeat protein 62 (WDR62) is a scaffold protein that recruits different components of the JNK signaling pathway to regulate several human diseases including neurological disorders, infertility, and tumorigenesis. Recent studies revealed that WDR62 regulates the process of neural stem cell mitosis and germ cell meiosis through JNK signaling. In this review we summarize the roles of WDR62 and JNK signaling in neuronal and non-neuronal contexts and discuss how JNK-dependent signaling regulates both processes. WDR62 is involved in various human disorders via JNK signaling regulation, and may represent a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiqiang Zhi
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xiaokun Zhou
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Jurui Yu
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Ling Yuan
- Center for Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Hongsheng Zhang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Dominic C H Ng
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical Science, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Zhiheng Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Dan Xu
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Institute of Neuroscience, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
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5
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Cao J, Xian W, Palihati M, Zhu Y, Wang G, Xie Y, Zhou G, You L. Deficiency of intellectual disability-related gene Brpf1 reduced inhibitory neurotransmission in MGE-derived GABAergic interneurons. G3 (Bethesda) 2021; 11:6179329. [PMID: 33744924 PMCID: PMC8496217 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkab090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Intellectual disability is closely related to impaired GABA neurotransmission. Brpf1 was specifically expressed in medial ganglionic eminence (MGE), a developmental niche of GABAergic interneurons, and patients with BRPF1 mutations showed intellectual disability. To test its role in the development and function of MGE-derived GABAergic interneurons, we performed immunofluorescence staining, whole-cell patch-clamp, MGE transplantation, and mRNA-Seq to understand its effect on neuronal differentiation, dendritic morphology, electrophysiology, migration, and gene regulation, using mouse MGE-derived GABAergic interneurons infected with AAV-shBrpf1. The results showed that Brpf1 knockdown had a decreasing trend, although not significant, on the differentiation of GABAergic interneurons into parvalbumin+ interneurons. Moreover, increased firing threshold, decreased number of evoked action potentials, and a reduced amplitude of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents were observed before any significant change of MAP2+ dendritic morphology and in vivo migration ability appeared. Finally, mRNA-Seq analysis revealed that genes related to neurodevelopment and synaptic transmission such as Map2k7 were dysregulated. Our results demonstrated a key role of Brpf1 in inhibitory neurotransmission and related gene expression of GABAergic interneurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingli Cao
- Department of Human Anatomy & Histoembryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Weiwei Xian
- Department of Human Anatomy & Histoembryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Maierdan Palihati
- Department of Human Anatomy & Histoembryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yu Zhu
- Department of Human Anatomy & Histoembryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Guoxiang Wang
- Institutes of Brain Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yunli Xie
- Institutes of Brain Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Guomin Zhou
- Department of Human Anatomy & Histoembryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,Key Laboratory of Medical Imaging Computing and Computer Assisted Intervention of Shanghai, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Linya You
- Department of Human Anatomy & Histoembryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,Key Laboratory of Medical Imaging Computing and Computer Assisted Intervention of Shanghai, Shanghai 200032, China
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6
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Yadav RK, Minz E, Mehan S. Understanding Abnormal c-JNK/p38MAPK Signaling in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: Potential Drug Targets and Influences on Neurological Disorders. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets 2021; 20:417-429. [PMID: 33557726 DOI: 10.2174/1871527320666210126113848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
c-JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family members work in a cell-specific manner to regulate neuronal signals. The abnormal activation of these cellular signals can cause glutamate excitotoxicity, disrupted protein homeostasis, defective axonal transport, and synaptic dysfunction. Various pre-clinical and clinical findings indicate that the up-regulation of c-JNK and p38MAPK signaling is associated with neurological disorders. Exceptionally, a significant amount of experimental data has recently shown that dysregulated c-JNK and p38MAPK are implicated in the damage to the central nervous system, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Furthermore, currently available information has shown that c- JNK/p38MAPK signaling inhibitors may be a promising therapeutic alternative for improving histopathological, functional, and demyelination defects related to motor neuron disabilities. Understanding the abnormal activation of c-JNK/p38MAPK signaling and the prediction of motor neuron loss may help identify important therapeutic interventions that could prevent neurocomplications. Based on the involvement of c-JNK/p38MAPK signaling in the brain, we have assumed that the downregulation of the c-JNK/p38MAPK signaling pathway could trigger neuroprotection and neurotrophic effects towards clinicopathological presentations of ALS and other brain diseases. Thus, this research-based review also outlines the inhibition of c-JNK and p38MAPK signal downregulation in the pursuit of disease-modifying therapies for ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajeshwar Kumar Yadav
- Neuropharmacology Division, Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, India
| | - Elizabeth Minz
- Neuropharmacology Division, Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, India
| | - Sidharth Mehan
- Neuropharmacology Division, Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, India
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7
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Abstract
Previous studies have found that oxidative stress is the negative reaction of the imbalance between oxidation and antioxidation caused by free radicals, and it is the fuse of aging and many diseases. Scavenging the accumulation of free radicals in the body and inhibiting the production of free radicals are effective ways to reduce the occurrence of oxidative stress. In recent years, studies have found that oxidative stress has other effects on the body, such as anti-tumour. In this paper, the targets related to anti-oxidative stress were introduced, and they were divided into nuclear transcription factors, enzymes, solute carrier family 7, member 11 (SLC7A11) genes and iron death, ion channels, molecular chaperones, small molecules according to their different functions. In addition, we introduce the research status of agonists/inhibitors related to these targets, so as to provide some reference for the follow-up research and clinical application of anti-oxidative stress drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Hong Qi
- College of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Fang-Xu Dong
- College of Foreign Languages, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
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8
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Shin T, Hiraoka Y, Yamasaki T, Marth JD, Penninger JM, Kanai-Azuma M, Tanaka K, Kofuji S, Nishina H. MKK7 deficiency in mature neurons impairs parental behavior in mice. Genes Cells 2020; 26:5-17. [PMID: 33098150 PMCID: PMC7839552 DOI: 10.1111/gtc.12816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
c‐Jun N‐terminal kinases (JNKs) are constitutively activated in mammalian brains and are indispensable for their development and neural functions. MKK7 is an upstream activator of all JNKs. However, whether the common JNK signaling pathway regulates the brain's control of social behavior remains unclear. Here, we show that female mice in which Mkk7 is deleted specifically in mature neurons (Mkk7flox/floxSyn‐Cre mice) give birth to a normal number of pups but fail to raise them due to a defect in pup retrieval. To explore the mechanism underlying this abnormality, we performed comprehensive behavioral tests. Mkk7flox/floxSyn‐Cre mice showed normal locomotor functions and cognitive ability but exhibited depression‐like behavior. cDNA microarray analysis of mutant brain revealed an altered gene expression pattern. Quantitative RT‐PCR analysis demonstrated that mRNA expression levels of genes related to neural signaling pathways and a calcium channel were significantly different from controls. In addition, loss of neural MKK7 had unexpected regulatory effects on gene expression patterns in oligodendrocytes. These findings indicate that MKK7 has an important role in regulating the gene expression patterns responsible for promoting normal social behavior and staving off depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadashi Shin
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuichi Hiraoka
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tokiwa Yamasaki
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Jamey D Marth
- Center for Nanomedicine, Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, SBP Medical Discovery Institute, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Josef M Penninger
- IMBA, Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria.,Department of Medical Genetics, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Masami Kanai-Azuma
- Department of Experimental Animal Model for Human Disease, Center for Experimental Animals, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kohichi Tanaka
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Satoshi Kofuji
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Nishina
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
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9
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Pilato CM, Park JH, Kong L, d'Ydewalle C, Valdivia D, Chen KS, Griswold-Prenner I, Sumner CJ. Motor neuron loss in SMA is not associated with somal stress-activated JNK/c-Jun signaling. Hum Mol Genet 2020; 28:3282-3292. [PMID: 31272106 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddz150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
A pathological hallmark of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is severe motor neuron (MN) loss, which results in muscle weakness and often infantile or childhood mortality. Although it is well established that deficient expression of survival motor neuron (SMN) protein causes SMA, the molecular pathways that execute MN cell death are poorly defined. The c-Jun NH2-terminal kinases (JNKs) are stress-activated kinases with multiple substrates including c-Jun, which can be activated during neuronal injury and neurodegenerative disease leading to neuronal apoptosis. Recently, increased JNK-c-Jun signaling was reported in SMA raising the possibility that JNK inhibitors could be a novel treatment for this disease. We examined JNK-c-Jun activity in SMA mouse and human cultured cells and tissues. Anisomycin treatment of human SMA fibroblasts and sciatic nerve ligation in SMA mice provoked robust phosphorylated-c-Jun (p-c-Jun) expression indicating that SMN-deficiency does not prevent activation of the stress-induced JNK-c-Jun signaling pathway. Despite retained capacity to activate JNK-c-Jun, we observed no basal increase of p-c-Jun levels in SMA compared to control cultured cells, human or mouse spinal cord tissues, or mouse MNs during the period of MN loss in severe SMA model mice. In both controls and SMA, ~50% of α-MN nuclei express p-c-Jun with decreasing expression during the early postnatal period. Together these studies reveal no evidence of stress-activated JNK-c-Jun signaling in MNs of SMA mice or human tissues, but do highlight the important role of JNK-c-Jun activity during normal MN development raising caution about JNK antagonism in this pediatric neuromuscular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Charlotte J Sumner
- Department of Neurology.,Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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10
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Okamoto-Uchida Y, Izawa J, Nishimura A, Hattori A, Suzuki N, Hirayama J. Post-translational Modifications are Required for Circadian Clock Regulation in Vertebrates. Curr Genomics 2019; 20:332-339. [PMID: 32476990 PMCID: PMC7235395 DOI: 10.2174/1389202919666191014094349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Circadian clocks are intrinsic, time-tracking systems that bestow upon organisms a survival advantage. Under natural conditions, organisms are trained to follow a 24-h cycle under environmental time cues such as light to maximize their physiological efficiency. The exact timing of this rhythm is established via cell-autonomous oscillators called cellular clocks, which are controlled by transcription/translation-based negative feedback loops. Studies using cell-based systems and genetic techniques have identified the molecular mechanisms that establish and maintain cellular clocks. One such mechanism, known as post-translational modification, regulates several aspects of these cellular clock components, including their stability, subcellular localization, transcriptional activity, and interaction with other proteins and signaling pathways. In addition, these mechanisms contribute to the integration of external signals into the cellular clock machinery. Here, we describe the post-translational modifications of cellular clock regulators that regulate circadian clocks in vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshimi Okamoto-Uchida
- Division of Medicinal Safety Science, National Institute of Health Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Junko Izawa
- Department of Clinical Engineering, Faculty of Health Sciences, Komatsu University, 10-10 Doihara-machi, Komatsu, Ishikawa, 923-0921, Japan
| | - Akari Nishimura
- Department of Clinical Engineering, Faculty of Health Sciences, Komatsu University, 10-10 Doihara-machi, Komatsu, Ishikawa, 923-0921, Japan
| | - Atsuhiko Hattori
- College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Ichikawa, Chiba, Japan
| | - Nobuo Suzuki
- Noto Marine Laboratory, Division of Marine Environmental Studies, Institute of Nature and Environmental Technology, Kanazawa University, Noto-cho, Ishikawa 927-0553, Japan
| | - Jun Hirayama
- Department of Clinical Engineering, Faculty of Health Sciences, Komatsu University, 10-10 Doihara-machi, Komatsu, Ishikawa, 923-0921, Japan
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Syc-Mazurek SB, Libby RT. Axon injury signaling and compartmentalized injury response in glaucoma. Prog Retin Eye Res 2019; 73:100769. [PMID: 31301400 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2019.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Axonal degeneration is an active, highly controlled process that contributes to beneficial processes, such as developmental pruning, but also to neurodegeneration. In glaucoma, ocular hypertension leads to vision loss by killing the output neurons of the retina, the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Multiple processes have been proposed to contribute to and/or mediate axonal injury in glaucoma, including: neuroinflammation, loss of neurotrophic factors, dysregulation of the neurovascular unit, and disruption of the axonal cytoskeleton. While the inciting injury to RGCs in glaucoma is complex and potentially heterogeneous, axonal injury is ultimately thought to be the key insult that drives glaucomatous neurodegeneration. Glaucomatous neurodegeneration is a complex process, with multiple molecular signals contributing to RGC somal loss and axonal degeneration. Furthermore, the propagation of the axonal injury signal is complex, with injury triggering programs of degeneration in both the somal and axonal compartment. Further complicating this process is the involvement of multiple cell types that are known to participate in the process of axonal and neuronal degeneration after glaucomatous injury. Here, we review the axonal signaling that occurs after injury and the molecular signaling programs currently known to be important for somal and axonal degeneration after glaucoma-relevant axonal injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie B Syc-Mazurek
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Richard T Libby
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA; Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA; The Center for Visual Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA.
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12
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IGARASHI M. Molecular basis of the functions of the mammalian neuronal growth cone revealed using new methods. Proc Jpn Acad Ser B Phys Biol Sci 2019; 95:358-377. [PMID: 31406059 PMCID: PMC6766448 DOI: 10.2183/pjab.95.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The neuronal growth cone is a highly motile, specialized structure for extending neuronal processes. This structure is essential for nerve growth, axon pathfinding, and accurate synaptogenesis. Growth cones are important not only during development but also for plasticity-dependent synaptogenesis and neuronal circuit rearrangement following neural injury in the mature brain. However, the molecular details of mammalian growth cone function are poorly understood. This review examines molecular findings on the function of the growth cone as a result of the introduction of novel methods such superresolution microscopy and (phospho)proteomics. These results increase the scope of our understating of the molecular mechanisms of growth cone behavior in the mammalian brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michihiro IGARASHI
- Department of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan
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13
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Li XQ, Yu Q, Tan WF, Zhang ZL, Ma H. MicroRNA-125b mimic inhibits ischemia reperfusion-induced neuroinflammation and aberrant p53 apoptotic signalling activation through targeting TP53INP1. Brain Behav Immun 2018; 74:154-165. [PMID: 30193876 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Revised: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ischemia reperfusion (IR) injury affects neuronal function through multiple pathogeneses that induce neuroinflammation and cellular apoptosis. The important roles of microRNAs (miRs) in the regulation of spinal cord IR have been recently reported. Among these roles, we investigated whether miR-125b and its downstream targets regulated the p53 signalling network and participated in both inflammation and apoptosis. METHODS An IR model was established via 12-min occlusion of the aortic arch. The direct interaction between miR-125b and TP53INP1 was demonstrated by Western blotting and luciferase assays. The cellular distributions of TP53INP1 were visualised by double immunofluorescence labelling. The effects of miR-125b on the expression of TP53INP1, p53 and release of proinflammatory cytokines were evaluated by synthetic miRs. Additionally, the detection of hind-limb motor function in vivo and motor neuronal apoptosis in vitro were evaluated to explore the potential mechanisms. RESULTS IR-induced alterations in hind-limb motor function were closely related to the temporal changes in miR-125b and TP53INP1 expression. The miR-125b/TP53INP1 gene pair was confirmed by luciferase assay. Compared with Sham controls, IR treatment resulted in increased TP53INP1 immunoreactivity that was primarily distributed in neurons. Treatment with miR-125b mimic markedly decreased the protein levels of TP53INP1, p53 and cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, whereas miR-125b control or inhibitor did not have the above-mentioned effects. Moreover, miR-125b mimic improved motor function in vivo and attenuated neuronal apoptosis in vitro, as demonstrated by the increased average Tarlov scores in lower limbs and lower percentages of neurons in the A4 and A2 quadrants of flow cytometry. Fluorescent staining and quantification further indicated that miR-125b mimic decreased the immunoreactivities of p53 and cleaved caspase 3 in neurons and simultaneously reduced the number of double-labelled cells with TP53INP1. CONCLUSIONS miR-125b mimic partially protected neurons against neuroinflammation and aberrant p53 network activation-induced apoptosis during IR injury through downregulation of TP53INP1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Qian Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, Liaoning, China
| | - Qian Yu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Fourth Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110032, Liaoning, China
| | - Wen-Fei Tan
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, Liaoning, China
| | - Zai-Li Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, Liaoning, China
| | - Hong Ma
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, Liaoning, China.
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14
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Abstract
Cellular metabolism maintains the life of cells, allowing energy production required for building cellular constituents and maintaining homeostasis under constantly changing external environments. Neuronal cells maintain their structure and function for the entire life of organisms and the loss of neurons, with limited neurogenesis in adults, directly causes loss of complexity in the neuronal networks. The nervous system organizes the neurons by placing cell bodies containing nuclei of similar types of neurons in discrete regions. Accordingly, axons must travel great distances to connect different types of neurons and peripheral organs. The enormous surface area of neurons makes them high-energy demanding to keep their membrane potential. Distal axon survival is dependent on axonal transport that is another energy demanding process. All of these factors make metabolic stress a potential risk factor for neuronal death and neuronal degeneration often associated with metabolic diseases. This review discusses recent findings on metabolic dysregulations under neuronal degeneration and pathways protecting neurons in these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yo Sasaki
- Department of Genetics, Washington University in St. Louis, Couch Biomedical Research Building, 4515 McKinley Ave., Saint Louis, MO, 63110, United States
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15
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Kawasaki A, Okada M, Tamada A, Okuda S, Nozumi M, Ito Y, Kobayashi D, Yamasaki T, Yokoyama R, Shibata T, Nishina H, Yoshida Y, Fujii Y, Takeuchi K, Igarashi M. Growth Cone Phosphoproteomics Reveals that GAP-43 Phosphorylated by JNK Is a Marker of Axon Growth and Regeneration. iScience 2018; 4:190-203. [PMID: 30240740 PMCID: PMC6147025 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2018.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Revised: 05/05/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal growth cones are essential for nerve growth and regeneration, as well as for the formation and rearrangement of the neural network. To elucidate phosphorylation-dependent signaling pathways and establish useful molecular markers for axon growth and regeneration, we performed a phosphoproteomics study of mammalian growth cones, which identified >30,000 phosphopeptides of ∼1,200 proteins. The phosphorylation sites were highly proline directed and primarily MAPK dependent, owing to the activation of JNK, suggesting that proteins that undergo proline-directed phosphorylation mediate nerve growth in the mammalian brain. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that phosphoproteins were enriched in microtubules and the cortical cytoskeleton. The most frequently phosphorylated site was S96 of GAP-43 (growth-associated protein 43-kDa), a vertebrate-specific protein involved in axon growth. This previously uncharacterized phosphorylation site was JNK dependent. S96 phosphorylation was specifically detected in growing and regenerating axons as the most frequent target of JNK signaling; thus it represents a promising new molecular marker for mammalian axonal growth and regeneration. Phosphoproteomics of mammalian growth cone membranes reveals activation of MAPK JNK is the activated MAPK in growth cones and phosphorylates S96 of GAP-43 pS96 of GAP-43, the most frequent site, is observed in growing axons pS96 is biochemically detected in the regenerating axons of the peripheral nerves
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Affiliation(s)
- Asami Kawasaki
- Department of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, 1-757 Asahimachi, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; Center for Trans-disciplinary Research, Institute for Research Promotion, Niigata University, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
| | - Masayasu Okada
- Department of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, 1-757 Asahimachi, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; Center for Trans-disciplinary Research, Institute for Research Promotion, Niigata University, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Research Institute, Niigata University, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8585, Japan
| | - Atsushi Tamada
- Department of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, 1-757 Asahimachi, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; Center for Trans-disciplinary Research, Institute for Research Promotion, Niigata University, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
| | - Shujiro Okuda
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
| | - Motohiro Nozumi
- Department of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, 1-757 Asahimachi, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; Center for Trans-disciplinary Research, Institute for Research Promotion, Niigata University, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Ito
- Department of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, 1-757 Asahimachi, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
| | - Daiki Kobayashi
- Department of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, 1-757 Asahimachi, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
| | - Tokiwa Yamasaki
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Ryo Yokoyama
- K.K. Sciex Japan, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 140-0001, Japan
| | | | - Hiroshi Nishina
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Yutaka Yoshida
- Center for Coordination of Research, Institute for Research Promotion, Niigata University, Ikarashi, Niigata 951-2181, Japan
| | - Yukihiko Fujii
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Research Institute, Niigata University, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8585, Japan
| | - Kosei Takeuchi
- Department of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, 1-757 Asahimachi, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; Center for Trans-disciplinary Research, Institute for Research Promotion, Niigata University, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; Department of Medical Cell Biology, Aichi Medical University, Nagakute, Aichi 480-1195, Japan
| | - Michihiro Igarashi
- Department of Neurochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, 1-757 Asahimachi, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8510, Japan; Center for Trans-disciplinary Research, Institute for Research Promotion, Niigata University, Chuo-ku, Niigata 951-8510, Japan.
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Yuskaitis CJ, Jones BM, Wolfson RL, Super CE, Dhamne SC, Rotenberg A, Sabatini DM, Sahin M, Poduri A. A mouse model of DEPDC5-related epilepsy: Neuronal loss of Depdc5 causes dysplastic and ectopic neurons, increased mTOR signaling, and seizure susceptibility. Neurobiol Dis 2017; 111:91-101. [PMID: 29274432 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2017.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2017] [Revised: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
DEPDC5 is a newly identified epilepsy-related gene implicated in focal epilepsy, brain malformations, and Sudden Unexplained Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP). In vitro, DEPDC5 negatively regulates amino acid sensing by the mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) pathway, but the role of DEPDC5 in neurodevelopment and epilepsy has not been described. No animal model of DEPDC5-related epilepsy has recapitulated the neurological phenotypes seen in patients, and germline knockout rodent models are embryonic lethal. Here, we establish a neuron-specific Depdc5 conditional knockout mouse by cre-recombination under the Synapsin1 promotor. Depdc5flox/flox-Syn1Cre (Depdc5cc+) mice survive to adulthood with a progressive neurologic phenotype that includes motor abnormalities (i.e., hind limb clasping) and reduced survival compared to littermate control mice. Depdc5cc+ mice have larger brains with increased cortical neuron size and dysplastic neurons throughout the cortex, comparable to the abnormal neurons seen in human focal cortical dysplasia specimens. Depdc5 results in constitutive mTORC1 hyperactivation exclusively in neurons as measured by the increased phosphorylation of the downstream ribosomal protein S6. Despite a lack of increased mTORC1 signaling within astrocytes, Depdc5cc+ brains show reactive astrogliosis. We observed two Depdc5cc+ mice to have spontaneous seizures, including a terminal seizure. We demonstrate that as a group Depdc5cc+ mice have lowered seizure thresholds, as evidenced by decreased latency to seizures after chemoconvulsant injection and increased mortality from pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures. In summary, our neuron-specific Depdc5 knockout mouse model recapitulates clinical, pathological, and biochemical features of human DEPDC5-related epilepsy and brain malformations. We thereby present an important model in which to study targeted therapeutic strategies for DEPDC5-related conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Yuskaitis
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Division of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurophysiology and Epilepsy Genetics Program, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Brandon M Jones
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Rachel L Wolfson
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, 455 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Chloe E Super
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Sameer C Dhamne
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Alexander Rotenberg
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Division of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurophysiology and Epilepsy Genetics Program, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Neuromodulation Program, Department of Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - David M Sabatini
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, 455 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at MIT, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Broad Institute, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Mustafa Sahin
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | - Annapurna Poduri
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Division of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurophysiology and Epilepsy Genetics Program, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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