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Cordani M, Dando I, Ambrosini G, González-Menéndez P. Signaling, cancer cell plasticity, and intratumor heterogeneity. Cell Commun Signal 2024; 22:255. [PMID: 38702718 PMCID: PMC11067149 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-024-01643-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Cancer's complexity is in part due to the presence of intratumor heterogeneity and the dynamic nature of cancer cell plasticity, which create substantial obstacles in effective cancer management. Variability within a tumor arises from the existence of diverse populations of cancer cells, impacting the progression, spread, and resistance to treatments. At the core of this variability is the concept of cellular plasticity - the intrinsic ability of cancer cells to alter their molecular and cellular identity in reaction to environmental and genetic changes. This adaptability is a cornerstone of cancer's persistence and progression, making it a formidable target for treatments. Emerging studies have emphasized the critical role of such plasticity in fostering tumor diversity, which in turn influences the course of the disease and the effectiveness of therapeutic strategies. The transformative nature of cancer involves a network of signal transduction pathways, notably those that drive the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and metabolic remodeling, shaping the evolutionary path of cancer cells. Despite advancements, our understanding of the precise molecular machinations and signaling networks driving these changes is still evolving, underscoring the necessity for further research. This editorial presents a series entitled "Signaling Cancer Cell Plasticity and Intratumor Heterogeneity" in Cell Communication and Signaling, dedicated to unraveling these complex processes and proposing new avenues for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Cordani
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, Complutense University, Madrid, 28040, Spain.
- Instituto de Investigaciones Sanitarias San Carlos (IdISSC), Madrid, 28040, Spain.
| | - Ilaria Dando
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, Biochemistry Section, University of Verona, Verona, 37134, Italy.
| | - Giulia Ambrosini
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, Biochemistry Section, University of Verona, Verona, 37134, Italy.
| | - Pedro González-Menéndez
- Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, School of Medicine, Julián Claveria 6, Oviedo, 33006, Spain.
- Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (IUOPA), University of Oviedo, Oviedo, 33006, Spain.
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias (HUCA), Oviedo, 33011, Spain.
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Lee MH, Sung K, Beebe D, Huang W, Shapiro D, Miyamoto S, Abel EJ. The SUMO protease SENP1 promotes aggressive behaviors of high HIF2α expressing renal cell carcinoma cells. Oncogenesis 2022; 11:65. [PMID: 36284084 PMCID: PMC9596416 DOI: 10.1038/s41389-022-00440-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
While an important role for the SUMO protease SENP1 is recognized in multiple solid cancers, its role in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) pathogenesis, particularly the most dominant subtype, clear cell RCC (ccRCC), is poorly understood. Here we show that a combination of high HIF2α and SENP1 expression in ccRCC samples predicts poor patient survival. Using ccRCC cell models that express high HIF2α but low SENP1, we show that overexpression of SENP1 reduces sumoylation and ubiquitination of HIF2α, increases HIF2α transcriptional activity, and enhances expression of genes associated with cancer cell invasion, stemness and epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Accordingly, ccRCC cells with high HIF2α and SENP1 showed increased invasion and sphere formation in vitro, and local invasion and metastasis in vivo. Finally, SENP1 overexpression caused high HIF2α ccRCC cells to acquire resistance to a clinical mTOR inhibitor, everolimus. These results reveal a combination of high SENP1 and HIF2α expression gives particularly poor prognosis for ccRCC patients and suggest that SENP1 may be an attractive new target for treating metastatic RCC (mRCC).
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Affiliation(s)
- Moon Hee Lee
- grid.14003.360000 0001 2167 3675Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 USA
| | - Kyung Sung
- grid.290496.00000 0001 1945 2072Division of Cellular and Gene Therapies, Office of Tissues and Advanced Therapies, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, the U.S. FDA, White Oak, MD 20993 USA ,grid.14003.360000 0001 2167 3675Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 USA
| | - David Beebe
- grid.14003.360000 0001 2167 3675Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 USA ,grid.412639.b0000 0001 2191 1477University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, Madison, WI 53705 USA
| | - Wei Huang
- grid.412639.b0000 0001 2191 1477University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, Madison, WI 53705 USA ,grid.14003.360000 0001 2167 3675Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 USA
| | - Dan Shapiro
- grid.14003.360000 0001 2167 3675Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 USA ,grid.412639.b0000 0001 2191 1477University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, Madison, WI 53705 USA
| | - Shigeki Miyamoto
- grid.412639.b0000 0001 2191 1477University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, Madison, WI 53705 USA ,grid.14003.360000 0001 2167 3675Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 USA
| | - E. Jason Abel
- grid.14003.360000 0001 2167 3675Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 USA ,grid.412639.b0000 0001 2191 1477University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, Madison, WI 53705 USA
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Shahabad ZA, Avci CB, Bani F, Zarebkohan A, Sadeghizadeh M, Salehi R, Ghafarkhani M, Rahbarghazi R, Bagca BG, Ozates NP. Photothermal effect of albumin-modified gold nanorods diminished neuroblastoma cancer stem cells dynamic growth by modulating autophagy. Sci Rep 2022; 12:11774. [PMID: 35821262 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-15660-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Here, we investigated the photothermal effect of gold nanorods (GNRs) on human neuroblastoma CD133+ cancer stem cells (CSCs) via autophagic cell death. GNRs were synthesized using Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), covered with bovine serum albumin (BSA). CD133+ CSCs were enriched from human neuroblastoma using the magnetic-activated cell sorting (MACS) technique. Cells were incubated with GNRs coated with BSA and exposed to 808-nm near-infrared laser irradiation for 8 min to yield low (43 °C), medium (46 °C), and high (49 °C) temperatures. After 24 h, the survival rate and the percent of apoptotic and necrotic CSCs were measured using MTT assay and flow cytometry. The expression of different autophagy-related genes was measured using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) array analysis. Protein levels of P62 and LC3 were detected using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The viability of CSC was reduced in GNR-exposed cells compared to the control group (p < 0.05). At higher temperatures (49 °C), the percent of apoptotic CSCs, but not necrotic cells, increased compared to the lower temperatures. Levels of intracellular LC3 and P62 were reduced and increased respectively when the temperature increased to 49 °C (p < 0.05). These effects were non-significant at low and medium temperatures (43 and 46 °C) related to the control CSCs (p > 0.05). The clonogenic capacity of CSC was also inhibited after photothermal therapy (p < 0.05). Despite these changes, no statistically significant differences were found in terms of CSC colony number at different temperatures regardless of the presence or absence of HCQ. Based on the data, the combination of photothermal therapy with HCQ at 49 °C can significantly abort the CSC clonogenic capacity compared to the control-matched group without HCQ (p < 0.0001). PCR array showed photothermal modulation of CSCs led to alteration of autophagy-related genes and promotion of co-regulator of apoptosis and autophagy signaling pathways. Factors related to autophagic vacuole formation and intracellular transport were significantly induced at a temperature of 49 °C (p < 0.05). We also note the expression of common genes belonging to autophagy and apoptosis signaling pathways at higher temperatures. Data showed tumoricidal effects of laser-irradiated GNRs by the alteration of autophagic response and apoptosis.
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Ibrahim AGE, Li C, Ciullo A, Jones-Ungerleider KC, Peck K, Marbán L, Marbán E. Small molecule inhibitors and culture conditions enhance therapeutic cell and EV potency via activation of beta-catenin and suppression of THY1. Nanomedicine 2021; 33:102347. [PMID: 33321216 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2020.102347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Primary cell therapy continues to face significant hurdles to therapeutic translation including the inherent variations that exist from donor to donor, batch to batch, and scale-up driven modifications to the manufacturing process. Cardiosphere-derived cells (CDCs) are stromal/progenitor cells with clinically demonstrated tissue reparative capabilities. Mechanistic investigations have identified canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling as a therapeutic potency marker, and THY1 (CD90) expression as inversely correlated with potency. Here we demonstrate that the cardiosphere formation process increases β-catenin levels and enriches for therapeutic miR content in the extracellular vesicles of these cells, namely miR-146a and miR-22. We further find that loss of potency is correlated with impaired cardiosphere formation. Finally, our data show that small GSK3β inhibitors including CHIR, and BIO and "pro-canonical Wnt" culturing conditions can rescue β-catenin signaling and reduce CD90 expression. These findings identify strategies that could be used to maintain CDC potency and therapeutic consistency.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chang Li
- Smidt Heart Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Alessandra Ciullo
- Smidt Heart Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | - Kiel Peck
- Smidt Heart Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Linda Marbán
- Capricor Therapeutics, Inc., Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Eduardo Marbán
- Smidt Heart Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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Ishii H, Mimura Y, Zahra MH, Katayama S, Hassan G, Afify SM, Seno M. Isolation and characterization of cancer stem cells derived from human glioblastoma. Am J Cancer Res 2021; 11:441-457. [PMID: 33575080 PMCID: PMC7868757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer stem cell (CSC) is considered as a cause of cancer recurrence and metastasis. Simultaneously CSCs are responsible for the heterogeneous population in tumor tissues due to their differentiation potential. However, the characterizations of CSCs are still not enough and cancer stem cell lines widely available is desired to be established for the advancement of cancer research. In this study, we tried to isolate and characterize stem like cells from human glioblastoma cell line U-251MG cells. U-251MG P1 cells, which was previously condensed in the presence of hyaluronic acid as CD44 positive population were subjected to single cell isolation procedure. Although 5 clones were isolated, only one clone exhibited high expression of CD44, Nanog, OCT3/4 and SOX2, and named U-251MGSC1. The sphere forming ability of U-251MGSC1 cell was significantly higher than the parental U-251MG cells. Tumorigenicity of U-251MG-SC1 cells were higher than that of U-251MG cells. U-251MGSC1 cells exhibited higher expression of CD44, SOX2, Nestin and A2B5 than U-251MG cells in vitro and in vivo. The expression of GFAP and NF-M was enhanced when the cells were treated with the conditioned medium of U-251MG cells indicating the potential of differentiation. Sphere forming ability was more efficient than that of U-251MG cells and was enhanced in the presence of hyaluronic acid, which enhanced the cell growth as well. U-251MGSC1 cells exhibited rapid growth tumor in nude mice and efficient metastatic ability in transmembrane assay when compared with U-251MG cells. As the result, we concluded U-251MGSC1 cell was a glioblastoma CSC line derived from the parental U-251MG cells. U-251MGSC1 cells will be a good tool to develop effective therapeutic agents against CSCs and to elucidate the properties of glioma derived CSCs and the mechanism of tumor development in brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroko Ishii
- GSP Enterprise, Inc.1-4-38 12F Minato-machi, Naniwaku, Osaka 556-0017, Japan
| | - Yuki Mimura
- Laboratory of Nano-Biotechnology, Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in Health Systems, Okayama UniversityOkayama 700-8530, Japan
| | - Maram H Zahra
- Laboratory of Nano-Biotechnology, Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in Health Systems, Okayama UniversityOkayama 700-8530, Japan
| | - Shota Katayama
- Laboratory of Nano-Biotechnology, Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in Health Systems, Okayama UniversityOkayama 700-8530, Japan
| | - Ghmkin Hassan
- Laboratory of Nano-Biotechnology, Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in Health Systems, Okayama UniversityOkayama 700-8530, Japan
| | - Said M Afify
- Laboratory of Nano-Biotechnology, Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in Health Systems, Okayama UniversityOkayama 700-8530, Japan
- Division of Biochemistry, Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Menoufia UniversityShebin ElKoum Menoufia, 32511, Egypt
| | - Masaharu Seno
- Laboratory of Nano-Biotechnology, Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in Health Systems, Okayama UniversityOkayama 700-8530, Japan
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Bryja A, Latosiński G, Jankowski M, Angelova Volponi A, Mozdziak P, Shibli JA, Bryl R, Spaczyńska J, Piotrowska-Kempisty H, Krawiec K, Kempisty B, Dyszkiewicz-Konwińska M. Transcriptomic and Morphological Analysis of Cells Derived from Porcine Buccal Mucosa-Studies on an In Vitro Model. Animals (Basel) 2020; 11:ani11010015. [PMID: 33374146 PMCID: PMC7824432 DOI: 10.3390/ani11010015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Domestic pigs express high phylogenetic similarity to humans and are often used as a compatible model in biomedical research. Porcine tissues are used as an accessible biomaterial in human skin transplants and tissue architecture reconstruction. We used transcriptional analysis to investigate the dynamics of complex biological system of the mucosa. Additionally, we performed computer analysis of microscopic images of cultured cells in vitro. Computer analysis of images identified epithelial cells and connective tissue cells in in vitro culture. Abstract Transcriptional analysis and live-cell imaging are a powerful tool to investigate the dynamics of complex biological systems. In vitro expanded porcine oral mucosal cells, consisting of populations of epithelial and connective lineages, are interesting and complex systems for study via microarray transcriptomic assays to analyze gene expression profile. The transcriptomic analysis included 56 ontological groups with particular focus on 7 gene ontology groups that are related to the processes of differentiation and development. Most analyzed genes were upregulated after 7 days and downregulated after 15 and 30 days of in vitro culture. The performed transcriptomic analysis was then extended to include automated analysis of differential interference contrast microscopy (DIC) images obtained during in vitro culture. The analysis of DIC imaging allowed to identify the different populations of keratinocytes and fibroblasts during seven days of in vitro culture, and it was possible to evaluate the proportion of these two populations of cells. Porcine mucosa may be a suitable model for reference research on human tissues. In addition, it can provide a reference point for research on the use of cells, scaffolds, or tissues derived from transgenic animals for applications in human tissues reconstruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artur Bryja
- Department of Anatomy, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-781 Poznań, Poland; (A.B.); (M.J.); (R.B.); (M.D.-K.)
| | - Grzegorz Latosiński
- Institute of Computing Science, Poznan University of Technology, 60-965 Poznań, Poland; (G.L.); (K.K.)
| | - Maurycy Jankowski
- Department of Anatomy, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-781 Poznań, Poland; (A.B.); (M.J.); (R.B.); (M.D.-K.)
| | - Ana Angelova Volponi
- Department of Craniofacial Development and Stem Cell Biology, King’s College University of London, London WC2R 2LS, UK;
| | - Paul Mozdziak
- Graduate Physiology Program, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA;
| | - Jamil A. Shibli
- Department of Periodontology and Oral Implantology, Dental Research Division, University of Guarulhos, Guarulhos 07030-010, SP, Brazil;
| | - Rut Bryl
- Department of Anatomy, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-781 Poznań, Poland; (A.B.); (M.J.); (R.B.); (M.D.-K.)
| | - Julia Spaczyńska
- Department of Toxicology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 61-631 Poznań, Poland; (J.S.); (H.P.-K.)
| | - Hanna Piotrowska-Kempisty
- Department of Toxicology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 61-631 Poznań, Poland; (J.S.); (H.P.-K.)
| | - Krzysztof Krawiec
- Institute of Computing Science, Poznan University of Technology, 60-965 Poznań, Poland; (G.L.); (K.K.)
| | - Bartosz Kempisty
- Department of Anatomy, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-781 Poznań, Poland; (A.B.); (M.J.); (R.B.); (M.D.-K.)
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-781 Poznań, Poland
- Department of Veterinary Surgery, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-61-8546418
| | - Marta Dyszkiewicz-Konwińska
- Department of Anatomy, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-781 Poznań, Poland; (A.B.); (M.J.); (R.B.); (M.D.-K.)
- Department of Biomaterials and Experimental Dentistry, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 61-701 Poznań, Poland
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Mok EHK, Lee TKW. The Pivotal Role of the Dysregulation of Cholesterol Homeostasis in Cancer: Implications for Therapeutic Targets. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E1410. [PMID: 32486083 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12061410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 05/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol plays an important role in cellular homeostasis by maintaining the rigidity of cell membranes, providing a medium for signaling transduction, and being converted into other vital macromolecules, such as sterol hormones and bile acids. Epidemiological studies have shown the correlation between cholesterol content and cancer incidence worldwide. Accumulating evidence has shown the emerging roles of the dysregulation of cholesterol metabolism in cancer development. More specifically, recent reports have shown the distinct role of cholesterol in the suppression of immune cells, regulation of cell survival, and modulation of cancer stem cells in cancer. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the epidemiological analysis, functional roles, and mechanistic action of cholesterol homeostasis in regard to its contribution to cancer development. Based on the existing data, cholesterol homeostasis is identified to be a new key player in cancer pathogenesis. Lastly, we also discuss the therapeutic implications of natural compounds and cholesterol-lowering drugs in cancer prevention and treatment. In conclusion, intervention in cholesterol metabolism may offer a new therapeutic avenue for cancer treatment.
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Chiodi I, Mondello C. Life style factors, tumor cell plasticity and cancer stem cells. Mutat Res Rev Mutat Res 2020; 784:108308. [PMID: 32430096 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2020.108308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Cancers are heterogeneous tissues and a layer of heterogeneity is determined by the presence of cells showing stemness traits, known as cancer stem cells (CSCs). Evidence indicates that CSCs are important players in tumor development, progression and relapse. Oncogenic transformation of normal stem cells can give rise to CSCs, but CSCs can also originate from de-differentiation of bulk tumor cells. Thus, factors promoting the increase of normal stem cell pools or stimulating the acquisition of stemness features by tumor cells can have serious consequences on cancer origin and progression. In this review, we will first give an overview of the CSC model of cancer development and we will then discuss the role of life style factors, such as high caloric diet, alcohol drinking and smoking, on the widening of stem cell pools and the induction of CSC features in tumors. Finally, we will discuss some healthy life style factors that can help to prevent cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Chiodi
- Istituto di Genetica Molecolare L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, CNR, via Abbiategrasso 207, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Chiara Mondello
- Istituto di Genetica Molecolare L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, CNR, via Abbiategrasso 207, 27100, Pavia, Italy.
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Ciardiello C, Leone A, Budillon A. The Crosstalk between Cancer Stem Cells and Microenvironment Is Critical for Solid Tumor Progression: The Significant Contribution of Extracellular Vesicles. Stem Cells Int 2018; 2018:6392198. [PMID: 30532788 DOI: 10.1155/2018/6392198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Several evidences nowadays demonstrated the critical role of the microenvironment in regulating cancer stem cells and their involvement in tumor progression. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are considered as one of the most effective vehicles of information among cells. Accordingly, a number of studies led to the recognition of stem cell-associated EVs as new complexes able to contribute to cell fate determination of either normal or tumor cells. In this review, we aim to highlight an existing bidirectional role of EV-mediated communication—from cancer stem cells to microenvironment and also from microenvironment to cancer stem cells—in the most widespread solid cancers as prostate, breast, lung, and colon tumors.
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