BET inhibitor suppresses migration of human hepatocellular carcinoma by inhibiting SMARCA4

Combining network pharmacology and experimental verification to explore the inhibitory effects of Deoxyelephantopin (DET) Against Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC)

BACKGROUND

DET has a significant inhibitory activity against a range of cancer cells; however, its specific effects and underlying mechanisms in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC) remain to be fully elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the potential mechanisms through which DET exerts its anti-neoplastic effects on NSCLC.

METHOD

Targets of DET were predicted using the SwissTargetPrediction database. Disease targets for NSCLC were obtained from the GeneCards database, and the intersection between drug targets and disease targets was determined. The STRING database was then employed to construct a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network and analyze target interactions. Additionally, Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG)enrichment analyses were conducted to investigate their biological functions. Molecular docking simulations were conducted using AutoDock software to analyze the binding interactions between DET and key target proteins. Subsequently, both in vitro and in vivo experiments were carried out to evaluate the anticancer effects of DET, with alterations in key gene expression levels assessed through RT-qPCR and Western blot analyses.

RESULTS

A total of 52 potential targets were discovered for DET and NSCLC. The PPI analysis revealed 5 hub targets, including CASP3, PTGS2, TNFα, ICAM1 and JUN. GO analysis identified 164 biological processes, 44 molecular functions and 40 cellular components. KEGG analysis revealed that DET anticancer effects were mediated through multiple pathways, primarily the AGE-RAGE and TNF signaling pathways. Experimental results demonstrated that DET inhibited the proliferation and migration of H460 cells and induced apoptosis in vitro. RT-qPCR and WB indicated that DET up regulated Bax and CASP3 while down regulating Bcl2, JUN, TNFα, NF-κB, ICAM1 and PTGS2.

CONCLUSION

This study aims to investigate the inhibitory effect of DET on NSCLC by combining network pharmacology and experimental methods. The results demonstrate that DET effectively inhibited the proliferation of H460 cells and induced apoptosis, with significant involvement of the AGE-RAGE and TNF signaling pathways, suggesting its potential as a therapeutic intervention for NSCLC.

UBE4B modulates BET inhibitor sensitivity via KLHL22-JAK2-PIM1 axis in hepatocellular carcinoma

Ubiquitination factor E4B (UBE4B) is crucial to the high mortality rate and poor prognosis associated with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Evidence suggests that aberrant epigenetic modifications significantly contribute to HCC carcinogenesis, making epigenetic mechanisms a promising area for therapeutic intervention. However, the precise role of UBE4B in the epigenetic dysregulation observed in HCC remains elusive. In this study, we silenced UBE4B in HCC cells and exposed them to a panel of epigenetic compounds. Notably, only bromodomain and extraterminal inhibitors (BETis) exhibited resistance to UBE4B silencing, while restoring UBE4B expression partially reversed this resistance. Furthermore, UBE4B deletion led to decreased growth rates and impaired proliferation, resulting in cell cycle arrest and diminished tumorigenicity. However, this deletion did not affect the cell cycle arrest induced by BETi. Interestingly, KLHL22, a ubiquitin substrate of UBE4B, accumulated in UBE4B-deleted cells. Knockdown of KLHL22 restored sensitivity to BETi, accompanied by downregulation of JAK2 and upregulation of its negative regulator, LNK. Additionally, UBE4B deletion resulted in decreased LNK expression, and LNK knockdown increased JAK2 expression and mediated resistance to BETi. Increased JAK2 subsequently targeted PIM1, further reducing the inhibitory effect of BETi. Directly silencing PIM1 in UBE4B-deleted cells restored BETi sensitivity. Overall, our findings provide novel insights into the relationship between UBE4B expression and BETi sensitivity, which is mediated through the KLHL22-JAK2-PIM1 regulatory axis. These findings not only deepen our understanding of the mechanisms underlying HCC progression but also suggest that targeting this axis may present a promising therapeutic strategy for enhancing the treatment outcomes of HCC.

Super-enhancers in hepatocellular carcinoma: regulatory mechanism and therapeutic targets

Super-enhancers (SEs) represent a distinct category of cis-regulatory elements notable for their robust transcriptional activation capabilities. In tumor cells, SEs intricately regulate the expression of oncogenes and pivotal cancer-associated signaling pathways, offering significant potential for cancer treatment. However, few studies have systematically discussed the crucial role of SEs in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), which is one of the most common liver cancers with late-stage diagnosis and limited treatment methods for advanced disease. Herein, we first summarize the identification methods and the intricate processes of formation and organization of super-enhancers. Subsequently, we delve into the roles and molecular mechanisms of SEs within the framework of HCC. Finally, we discuss the inhibitors targeting the key SE-components and their potential effects on the treatment of HCC. In conclusion, this review meticulously encapsulates the distinctive characteristics of SEs and underscores their pivotal roles in the context of hepatocellular carcinoma, presenting a novel perspective on the potential of super-enhancers as emerging therapeutic targets for HCC.

Bromodomain inhibitor treatment leads to overexpression of multiple kinases in cancer cells

The bromodomain and extraterminal (BET) family of proteins show altered expression across various cancers. The members of the bromodomain (BRD) family contain epigenetic reader domains that bind to acetylated lysine residues in both histone and non-histone proteins. Since BRD proteins are involved in cancer initiation and progression, therapeutic targeting of these proteins has recently been an area of interest. In experimental settings, JQ1, a commonly used BRD inhibitor, is the first known inhibitor to target BRD-containing protein 4 (BRD4), a ubiquitously expressed BRD and extraterminal family protein. BRD4 is necessary for a normal cell cycle, and its aberrant expression activates pro-inflammatory cytokines, leading to tumor initiation and progression. Various BRD4 inhibitors have been developed recently and tested in preclinical settings and are now in clinical trials. However, as with many targeted therapies, BRD inhibitor treatment can lead to resistance to treatment. Here, we investigated the kinases up-regulated on JQ1 treatment that may serve as target for combination therapy along with BRD inhibitors. To identify kinase targets, we performed a comparative analysis of gene expression data using RNA from BRD inhibitor-treated cells or BRD-modulated cells and identified overexpression of several kinases, including FYN, NEK9, and ADCK5. We further validated, by immunoblotting, the overexpression of FYN tyrosine kinase; NEK9 serine/threonine kinase and ADCK5, an atypical kinase, to confirm their overexpression after BRD inhibitor treatment. Importantly, our studies show that targeting FYN or NEK9 along with BRD inhibitor effectively reduces proliferation of cancer cells. Therefore, our research emphasizes a potential approach of utilizing inhibitors targeting some of the overexpressed kinases in conjunction with BRD inhibitors to enhance therapeutic effectiveness.

In Vitro Bioassay for Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns Arising from Injured Oral Cells

Gingival fibroblasts are a significant source of paracrine signals required to maintain periodontal homeostasis and to mediate pathological events linked to periodontitis and oral squamous cell carcinomas. Among the potential paracrine signals are stanniocalcin-1 (STC1), involved in oxidative stress and cellular survival; amphiregulin (AREG), a growth factor that mediates the cross-talk between immune cells and epithelial cells; chromosome 11 open reading frame 96 (C11orf96) with an unclear biologic function; and the inflammation-associated prostaglandin E synthase (PTGES). Gingival fibroblasts increasingly express these genes in response to bone allografts containing remnants of injured cells. Thus, the gene expression might be caused by the local release of damage-associated molecular patterns arising from injured cells. The aim of this study is consequently to use the established gene panel as a bioassay to measure the damage-associated activity of oral cell lysates. To this aim, we have exposed gingival fibroblasts to lysates prepared from the squamous carcinoma cell lines TR146 and HSC2, oral epithelial cells, and gingival fibroblasts. We report here that all lysates significantly increased the transcription of the entire gene panel, supported for STC1 at the protein level. Blocking TGF-β receptor 1 kinase with SB431542 only partially reduced the forced expression of STC1, AREG, and C11orf96. SB431542 even increased the PTGES expression. Together, these findings suggest that the damage signals originating from oral cells can change the paracrine activity of gingival fibroblasts. Moreover, the expression panel of genes can serve as a bioassay for testing the biocompatibility of materials for oral application.

Identification of potential pathogenic hepatic super-enhancers regulatory network in high-fat diet induced hyperlipidemia

Hyperlipidemia (HLP) is a prevalent metabolic disorder and a significant risk factor for cardiovascular disease. According to recent discoveries, super-enhancers (SEs) play a role in the increased expression of genes that encode important regulators of both cellular identity and the progression of diseases. However, the underlying function of SEs in the development of HLP is still unknown. We performed an integrative analysis of data on H3K27ac ChIP-seq and RNA sequencing obtained from liver tissues of mice under a low-fat diet (LFD) and high-fat diet (HFD) from GEO database. The rank ordering of super enhancers algorithm was employed for the computation and identification of SEs. A total of 1,877 and 1,847 SEs were identified in the LFD and HFD groups, respectively. The SE inhibitor JQ1 was able to potently reverse lipid deposition and the increased intracellular triglyceride and total cholesterol induced by oleic acid, indicating that SEs are involved in regulating lipid accumulation. Two hundred seventy-eight were considered as HFD-specific SEs (HSEs). GO and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis of the upregulated HSEs-associated genes revealed that they were mainly involved in lipid metabolic pathway. Four hub genes, namely Cd36, Pex11a, Ech1, and Cidec, were identified in the HSEs-associated protein-protein interaction network, and validated with two other datasets. Finally, we constructed a HSEs-specific regulatory network with Cidec and Cd36 as the core through the prediction and verification of transcription factors. Our study constructed a HSEs-associated regulatory network in the pathogenesis of HLP, providing new ideas for the underlying mechanisms and therapeutic targets of HLP.

Transcriptional co-activators: emerging roles in signaling pathways and potential therapeutic targets for diseases

Specific cell states in metazoans are established by the symphony of gene expression programs that necessitate intricate synergic interactions between transcription factors and the co-activators. Deregulation of these regulatory molecules is associated with cell state transitions, which in turn is accountable for diverse maladies, including developmental disorders, metabolic disorders, and most significantly, cancer. A decade back most transcription factors, the key enablers of disease development, were historically viewed as 'undruggable'; however, in the intervening years, a wealth of literature validated that they can be targeted indirectly through transcriptional co-activators, their confederates in various physiological and molecular processes. These co-activators, along with transcription factors, have the ability to initiate and modulate transcription of diverse genes necessary for normal physiological functions, whereby, deregulation of such interactions may foster tissue-specific disease phenotype. Hence, it is essential to analyze how these co-activators modulate specific multilateral processes in coordination with other factors. The proposed review attempts to elaborate an in-depth account of the transcription co-activators, their involvement in transcription regulation, and context-specific contributions to pathophysiological conditions. This review also addresses an issue that has not been dealt with in a comprehensive manner and hopes to direct attention towards future research that will encompass patient-friendly therapeutic strategies, where drugs targeting co-activators will have enhanced benefits and reduced side effects. Additional insights into currently available therapeutic interventions and the associated constraints will eventually reveal multitudes of advanced therapeutic targets aiming for disease amelioration and good patient prognosis.

MYC in liver cancer: mechanisms and targeted therapy opportunities

MYC, a major oncogenic transcription factor, regulates target genes involved in various pathways such as cell proliferation, metabolism and immune evasion, playing a critical role in the tumor initiation and development in multiple types of cancer. In liver cancer, MYC and its signaling pathways undergo significant changes, exerting a profound impact on liver cancer progression, including tumor proliferation, metastasis, dedifferentiation, metabolism, immune microenvironment, and resistance to comprehensive therapies. This makes MYC an appealing target, despite it being previously considered an undruggable protein. In this review, we discuss the role and mechanisms of MYC in liver physiology, chronic liver diseases, hepatocarcinogenesis, and liver cancer progression, providing a theoretical basis for targeting MYC as an ideal therapeutic target for liver cancer. We also summarize and prospect the strategies for targeting MYC, including direct and indirect approaches to abolish the oncogenic function of MYC in liver cancer.

Regulation of 4-HNE via SMARCA4 Is Associated with Worse Clinical Outcomes in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Accumulation of 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), a marker of lipid peroxidation, has various favorable and unfavorable effects on cancer cells; however, the clinicopathological significance of its accumulation in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and its metabolic pathway remain unknown. This study analyzed 4-HNE accumulation and its clinicopathological significance in HCC. Of the 221 cases, 160 showed relatively low accumulation of 4-HNE in HCC tissues, which was an independent prognostic predictor. No correlation was found between 4-HNE accumulation and the expression of the antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase 4, ferroptosis suppressor protein 1, and guanosine triphosphate cyclohydrolase 1. Therefore, we hypothesized that 4-HNE metabolism is up-regulated in HCC. A database search was focused on the transcriptional regulation of aldo-keto reductases, alcohol dehydrogenases, and glutathione-S-transferases, which are the metabolic enzymes of 4-HNE, and seven candidate transcription factor genes were selected. Among the candidate genes, the knockdown of SWI/SNF-related, matrix-associated, actin-dependent regulator of chromatin, subfamily a, member 4 (SMARCA4) increased 4-HNE accumulation. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed an inverse correlation between 4-HNE accumulation and SMARCA4 expression. These results suggest that SMARCA4 regulates 4-HNE metabolism in HCC. Therefore, targeting SMARCA4 provides a basis for a new therapeutic strategy for HCC via 4-HNE accumulation and increased cytotoxicity.

The SLC38A5/SNAT5 amino acid transporter: from pathophysiology to pro-cancer roles in the tumor microenvironment

SLC38A5/SNAT5 is a system N transporter that can mediate net inward or outward transmembrane fluxes of neutral amino acids coupled with Na+ (symport) and H+ (antiport). Its preferential substrates are not only amino acids with side chains containing amide (glutamine and asparagine) or imidazole (histidine) groups, but also serine, glycine, and alanine are transported by the carrier. Expressed in the pancreas, intestinal tract, brain, liver, bone marrow, and placenta, it is regulated at mRNA and protein levels by mTORC1 and WNT/β-catenin pathways, and it is sensitive to pH, nutritional stress, inflammation, and hypoxia. SNAT5 expression has been found to be altered in pathological conditions such as chronic inflammatory diseases, gestational complications, chronic metabolic acidosis, and malnutrition. Growing experimental evidence shows that SNAT5 is overexpressed in several types of cancer cells. Moreover, recently published results indicate that SNAT5 expression in stromal cells can support the metabolic exchanges occurring in the tumor microenvironment of asparagine-auxotroph tumors. We review the functional role of the SNAT5 transporter in pathophysiology and propose that, due to its peculiar operational and regulatory features, SNAT5 may play important pro-cancer roles when expressed either in neoplastic or in stromal cells of glutamine-auxotroph tumors.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The transporter SLC38A5/SNAT5 provides net influx or efflux of glutamine, asparagine, and serine. These amino acids are of particular metabolic relevance in several conditions. Changes in transporter expression or activity have been described in selected types of human cancers, where SNAT5 can mediate amino acid exchanges between tumor and stromal cells, thus providing a potential therapeutic target. This is the first review that recapitulates the characteristics and roles of the transporter in physiology and pathology.

The role of protein acetylation in carcinogenesis and targeted drug discovery

Protein acetylation is a reversible post-translational modification, and is involved in many biological processes in cells, such as transcriptional regulation, DNA damage repair, and energy metabolism, which is an important molecular event and is associated with a wide range of diseases such as cancers. Protein acetylation is dynamically regulated by histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and histone deacetylases (HDACs) in homeostasis. The abnormal acetylation level might lead to the occurrence and deterioration of a cancer, and is closely related to various pathophysiological characteristics of a cancer, such as malignant phenotypes, and promotes cancer cells to adapt to tumor microenvironment. Therapeutic modalities targeting protein acetylation are a potential therapeutic strategy. This article discussed the roles of protein acetylation in tumor pathology and therapeutic drugs targeting protein acetylation, which offers the contributions of protein acetylation in clarification of carcinogenesis, and discovery of therapeutic drugs for cancers, and lays the foundation for precision medicine in oncology.

The bromodomain inhibitor JQ1 up-regulates the long non-coding RNA MALAT1 in cultured human hepatic carcinoma cells

The epigenetic reader, bromodomain-containing 4 (BRD4), is overexpressed in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and BRD4 inhibition is considered as a new therapeutic approach. The BRD inhibitor JQ1 is known to inhibit the enrichment of BRD4 at enhancer sites. Gene network analyses have implicated long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in the effects of JQ1, but the precise molecular events remain unexplored. Here, we report that in HepG2 cells, JQ1 significantly reduced various proliferation-related lncRNAs, but up-regulated the known liver tumor marker, MALAT1. Using ChIP-sequencing data, ChIP-qPCR, luciferase reporter assays, and chromatin conformation capture (3C), we characterized the MALAT1 gene locus. We found that JQ1 elicited a rearrangement of its chromatin looping conformation, which involved the putative enhancers E1, E2, E3, the gene body, and the promoter. We further found that the forkhead box protein A2 (FOXA2) binds to E2 and the promoter; suppression of FOXA2 expression resulted in MALAT1 up-regulation and increased cell proliferation. These results suggest that the inhibition of MALAT1 may improve the effect of BET inhibitors as an anti-cancer therapy and that FOXA2 would be a suitable target for that approach.

Comprehensive transcriptome profiling of BET inhibitor-treated HepG2 cells

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver cancer and poor prognosis. Emerging evidence suggests that epigenetic alterations play a crucial role in HCC, suggesting epigenetic inhibition as a promising therapeutic approach. Indeed, the bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) inhibitors inhibit the proliferation and invasion of various cancers but still lack a strong mechanistic rationale. Here, we identified the differentially expressed mRNAs (DEmRNAs) and lncRNAs (DElncRNAs) in human HCC cell line HepG2 treated with the BET inhibitors, JQ1, OTX015, or ABBV-075. We analyzed the correlation between DEmRNAs and DElncRNAs in common for the three inhibitors based on their expression profiles and performed functional annotation pathway enrichment analysis. Most of these shared DEmRNAs and DElncRNAs, including some novel transcripts, were downregulated, indicating decreased proliferation/adhesion and increased apoptosis/inflammation. Our study suggests that BET proteins play a crucial role in regulating cancer progression-related genes and provide a valuable resource for novel putative biomarkers and therapeutic targets in HCC.

AZD5153, a Bivalent BRD4 Inhibitor, Suppresses Hepatocarcinogenesis by Altering BRD4 Chromosomal Landscape and Modulating the Transcriptome of HCC Cells

BRD4, a chromatin modifier frequently upregulated in a variety of neoplasms including hepatocellular cancer (HCC), promotes cancer cell growth by activating oncogenes through its interaction with acetylated histone tails of nucleosomes. Here, we determined the anti-HCC efficacy of AZD5153, a potent bivalent BRD4 inhibitor, and elucidated its underlying molecular mechanism of action. AZD5153 treatment inhibited HCC cell proliferation, clonogenic survival and induced apoptosis in HCC cells. In vivo, AZD5153-formulated lipid nanoemulsions inhibited both orthotopic and subcutaneous HCCLM3 xenograft growth in NSG mice. Mapping of BRD4- chromosomal targets by ChIP-seq analysis identified the occupancy of BRD4 with the promoters, gene bodies, and super-enhancers of both mRNA and noncoding RNA genes, which were disrupted upon AZD5153 treatment. RNA-seq analysis of polyadenylated RNAs showed several BRD4 target genes involved in DNA replication, cell proliferation, and anti-apoptosis were repressed in AZD5153-treated HCC cells. In addition to known tumor-promoting genes, e.g., c-MYC, YAP1, RAD51B, TRIB3, SLC17A9, JADE1, we found that NAPRT, encoding a key enzyme for NAD⁺ biosynthesis from nicotinic acid, was also suppressed in HCC cells by the BRD4 inhibitor. Interestingly, AZD5153 treatment upregulated NAMPT, whose product is the rate-limiting enzyme for NAD⁺ synthesis from nicotinamide. This may explain why AZD5153 acted in concert with FK866, a potent NAMPT inhibitor, in reducing HCC cell proliferation and clonogenic survival. In conclusion, our results identified novel targets of BRD4 in the HCCLM3 cell genome and demonstrated anti-HCC efficacy of AZD5153, which was potentiated in combination with an NAMPT inhibitor.

iRGD Tumor-Penetrating Peptide-Modified Nano-Delivery System Based on a Marine Sulfated Polysaccharide for Enhanced Anti-Tumor Efficiency Against Breast Cancer

Background

Breast cancer is a common malignancy in women. Conventional clinical therapies for breast cancer all display moderate clinical efficacies and limitations. It is urgent to explore the novel and combined therapeutic strategies for breast cancer to meet clinical demand.

Methods

An iRGD tumor-penetrating peptide-modified nano-delivery system (denoted as iRGD-PSS@PBAE@JQ1/ORI nanoparticles) based on a marine sulfated polysaccharide was developed by codelivery of JQ1 (BET inhibitor) and oridonin (ORI, bioactive diterpenoid derived from traditional Chinese medicine herb). The iRGD-PSS@PBAE@JQ1/ORI NPs, surface modified with iRGD peptide conjugated propylene glycol alginate sodium sulfate (iRGD-PSS). The antitumor efficacy was evaluated both in vitro and in vivo.

Results

The prepared iRGD-PSS@PBAE@JQ1/ORI NPs effectively enhanced the tumor targeting and cellular internalization of JQ1 and ORI. Thus, JQ1 exerted the reversal effect on immune tolerance by decreasing the expression of PD-L1, while ORI displayed multiple antitumor effects, such as antiproliferation, inhibition of intracellular ROS production and inhibition of lactic acid secretion.

Conclusion

Our data revealed that iRGD peptide could significantly improve the cellular internalization and tumor penetration of the nano-delivery system. The combination of JQ1 and ORI could exert synergistic antitumor activities. Taken together, this study provides a multifunctional nanotherapeutic system to enhance the anti-tumor efficiency against breast cancer.

Rare Hereditary Gynecological Cancer Syndromes

Hereditary cancer syndromes, which are characterized by onset at an early age and an increased risk of developing certain tumors, are caused by germline pathogenic variants in tumor suppressor genes and are mostly inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. Therefore, hereditary cancer syndromes have been used as powerful models to identify and characterize susceptibility genes associated with cancer. Furthermore, clarification of the association between genotypes and phenotypes in one disease has provided insights into the etiology of other seemingly different diseases. Molecular genetic discoveries from the study of hereditary cancer syndrome have not only changed the methods of diagnosis and management, but have also shed light on the molecular regulatory pathways that are important in the development and treatment of sporadic tumors. The main cancer susceptibility syndromes that involve gynecologic cancers include hereditary breast and ovarian cancer syndrome as well as Lynch syndrome. However, in addition to these two hereditary cancer syndromes, there are several other hereditary syndromes associated with gynecologic cancers. In the present review, we provide an overview of the clinical features, and discuss the molecular genetics, of four rare hereditary gynecological cancer syndromes; Cowden syndrome, Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, DICER1 syndrome and rhabdoid tumor predisposition syndrome 2.

Bromodomain and extra-terminal inhibitors emerge as potential therapeutic avenues for gastrointestinal cancers

Gastrointestinal (GI) cancers, including colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, liver cancer and gastric cancer, are severe social burdens due to high incidence and mortality rates. Bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) proteins are epigenetic readers consisting of four conserved members (BRD2, BRD3, BRD4 and BRDT). BET family perform pivotal roles in tumorigenesis through transcriptional regulation, thereby emerging as potential therapeutic targets. BET inhibitors, disrupting the interaction between BET proteins and acetylated lysines, have been reported to suppress tumor initiation and progression in most of GI cancers. In this review, we will demonstrate how BET proteins participate in the GI cancers progression and highlight the therapeutic potential of targeting BET proteins for GI cancers treatment.

Liver cell circuits and therapeutic discovery for advanced liver disease and cancer

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major global health challenge with rising incidence. Despite the previous approval of several novel therapeutic approaches, HCC remains the second common cause of cancer-related death worldwide. The vast majority of HCCs arises in the context of chronic fibrotic liver diseases caused by viral or metabolic etiologies. In patients with advanced liver disease the risk of HCC persists even after viral cure or control of infection. Moreover, given the change in the lifestyle and increase of obesity and metabolic disorders, HCC incidence is predicted to drastically augment in the next decade. Early detection, improvement of the screening method in patient at-risk and development of chemopreventive strategies are therefore urgently needed to reduce HCC risk. This review summarizes the major challenges in the identification of patient at risk for HCC and the emergent strategies for HCC prevention to improve patients’ outcome.

A Pan-Cancer Analysis of SMARCA4 Alterations in Human Cancers

Background

SMARCA4, the essential ATPase subunit of SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex, regulates transcription through the control of chromatin structure and is increasingly thought to play significant roles in human cancers. This study aims to explore the potential role of SMARCA4 with a view to providing insights on pathologic mechanisms implicated here.

Methods

The potential roles of SMARCA4 in different tumors were explored based on The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), Genotype-tissue expression (GTEx), Tumor Immune Estimation Resource (TIMER), and Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) datasets. The expression difference, mutation and phosphorylation status, survival, pathological stage, DNA methylation, tumor mutation burden (TMB), microsatellite instability (MSI), mismatch repair (MMR), tumor microenvironment (TME), and immune cell infiltration related to SMARCA4 were analyzed.

Results

High expression levels of SMARCA4 were observed in most cancer types. SMARCA4 expression in tumor samples correlates with poor overall survival in several cancers. Lung adenocarcinoma cases with altered SMARCA4 showed a poorer prognosis. Enhanced phosphorylation levels of S613, S695, S699, and S1417 were observed in several tumors, including breast cancer. SMARCA4 correlated with tumor immunity and associated with different immune cells and genes in different cancer types. TMB, MSI, MMR, and DNA methylation correlated with SMARCA4 dysregulation in cancers. SMARCA4 expression was negatively associated with CD8+ T-cell infiltration in several tumors. Furthermore, the SWI/SNF superfamily-type complex and ATPase complex may be involved in the functional mechanisms of SMARCA4, albeit these data require further confirmation.

Conclusions

Our study offers a comprehensive understanding of the oncogenic roles of SMARCA4 across different tumors. SMARCA4 may correlate with tumor immunity.