Structural basis for promotion of duodenal iron absorption by enteric ferric reductase with ascorbate

Cell differentiation controls iron assimilation in the choanoflagellate Salpingoeca rosetta

Marine microeukaryotes have evolved diverse cellular features that link their life histories to surrounding environments. How those dynamic life histories intersect with the ecological functions of microeukaryotes remains a frontier to understanding their roles in critical biogeochemical cycles. Choanoflagellates, phagotrophs that cycle nutrients through filter feeding, provide models to explore this intersection, for many choanoflagellate species transition between life history stages by differentiating into distinct cell types. Here, we report that cell differentiation in the marine choanoflagellate Salpingoeca rosetta endows one of its cell types with the ability to utilize insoluble ferric colloids. These colloids are a predominant form of iron in marine environments and are largely inaccessible to cell-walled microbes. Therefore, choanoflagellates and other phagotrophic eukaryotes may serve critical ecological roles by cycling this essential nutrient through iron utilization pathways. We found that S. rosetta can utilize these ferric colloids via the expression of a cytochrome b561 iron reductase (cytb561a). This gene and its mammalian ortholog, the duodenal cytochrome b561 (DCYTB) that reduces ferric cations for uptake in gut epithelia, belong to a subgroup of cytochrome b561 proteins with distinct biochemical features that contribute to iron reduction activity. Overall, our findings provide insight into the ecological roles choanoflagellates perform and inform reconstructions of early animal evolution where functionally distinct cell types became an integrated whole at the origin of animal multicellularity.

IMPORTANCE

This study examines how cell differentiation in a choanoflagellate enables the uptake of iron, an essential nutrient. Choanoflagellates are widespread, aquatic microeukaryotes that are the closest living relatives of animals. Similar to their animal relatives, we found that the model choanoflagellate, S. rosetta, divides metabolic functions between distinct cell types. One cell type uses an iron reductase to acquire ferric colloids, a key source of iron in the ocean. We also observed that S. rosetta has three variants of this reductase, each with distinct biochemical properties that likely lead to differences in how they reduce iron. These reductases are variably distributed across ocean regions, suggesting a role for choanoflagellates in cycling iron in marine environments.

The pharmacology of vitamin C

Ascorbic acid, the reduced form of vitamin C, is a ubiquitous small carbohydrate. Despite decades of focused research, new metabolic functions of this universal electron donor are still being discovered and add to the complexity of our view of vitamin C in human health. Although praised as an unsurpassed water-soluble antioxidant in plasma and cells, the most interesting functions of vitamin C seem to be its roles as specific electron donor in numerous biological reactions ranging from the well-known hydroxylation of proline to cofactor for the epigenetic master regulators ten-eleven translocation enzymes and Jumonji domain-containing histone-lysine demethylases. Some of these functions may have important implications for disease prevention and treatment and have spiked renewed interest in, eg, vitamin C's potential in cancer therapy. Moreover, some fundamental pharmacokinetic properties of vitamin C remain to be established including if other mechanisms than passive diffusion governs the efflux of ascorbate anions from the cell. Taken together, there still seems to be much to learn about the pharmacology of vitamin C and its role in health and disease. This review explores new avenues of vitamin C and integrates our present knowledge of its pharmacology. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Vitamin C is involved in multiple biological reactions of which most are essential to human health. Hundreds of millions of people are considered deficient in vitamin C according to accepted guidelines, but little is known about the long-term consequences. Although the complexity of vitamin C's physiology and pharmacology has been widely disregarded in clinical studies for decades, it seems clear that a deeper understanding of particularly its pharmacology holds the key to unravel and possibly exploit the potential of vitamin C in disease prevention and therapy.

Role of the human cytochrome b561 family in iron metabolism and tumors (Review)

The human cytochrome b561 (hCytb561) family consists of electron transfer transmembrane proteins characterized by six conserved α-helical transmembrane domains and two β-type heme cofactors. These proteins contribute to the regulation of iron metabolism and numerous different physiological and pathological processes by recycling ascorbic acid and maintaining iron reductase activity. Key members of this family include cytochrome b561 (CYB561), duodenal CYB561 (Dcytb), lysosomal CYB561 (LCytb), stromal cell-derived receptor 2 (SDR2) and 101F6, which are widely expressed in human tissues and participate in the pathogenesis of several diseases and tumors. They are associated with the promotion or inhibition of tumor growth and progression in various malignancies and are potential therapeutic targets for malignant tumors. The present review summarizes the existing literature regarding the structure of the Cytb561 family, the basic functional characteristics of hCytb561 family members, and the roles of the CYB561, Dcytb, LCytb, SDR2 and 101F6 in various diseases and tumors.

Pearl millet instant beverage powder enriched with baobab pulp to improve iron and anaemia status of adolescent girls in rural Ghana: a study protocol for a cluster randomised controlled trial

Iron (Fe) deficiency anaemia is a public health concern among adolescent girls worldwide. Food-to-food fortification may be a sustainable and effective solution to Fe deficiency anaemia. However, the effect of food-to-food fortification on Fe deficiency anaemia reduction is understudied particularly in Ghana. This study seeks to investigate the efficacy of baobab pulp-fortified pearl millet beverage powder in improving the Fe and anaemia status of adolescent girls in Ghana. A three-arm cluster randomised controlled trial design, which will involve 258 anaemic adolescent girls (86/arm) selected through multi-stage cluster sampling in Kumbungu District of Ghana, will be used. Participants in arm 1 will receive 350 ml of baobab pulp-fortified pearl millet beverage, containing 13 mgFe (96 % of average RDA), 18·8 mg vitamin C (30·4 % of average RDA) and 222·1 mg citric acid, while participants in arm 2 will receive similar volume of unfortified pearl millet beverage, once a day, five times a week, for six months. Participants in arm 3 will receive the routine weekly Fe (60 mg)-folate (400 μg) supplementation for six months. Serum ferritin, C-reactive protein and haemoglobin (Hb) of participants will be assessed at baseline and end-line. The primary outcomes will be serum ferritin and Hb concentrations. Secondary outcomes will be prevalence of Fe deficiency, Fe deficiency anaemia and BMI-for-age. One-way ANOVA and paired t test will be used to compare means of serum ferritin and Hb levels among and within groups, respectively. This study will provide novel concrete evidence on the efficacy of pearl millet-baobab pulp beverage powder in improving Fe and anaemia status of adolescent girls.

Exploring the relationship between anastasis and mitochondrial ROS-mediated ferroptosis in metastatic chemoresistant cancers: a call for investigation

Ferroptosis induces significant changes in mitochondrial morphology, including membrane condensation, volume reduction, cristae alteration, and outer membrane rupture, affecting mitochondrial function and cellular fate. Recent reports have described the intrinsic cellular iron metabolism and its intricate connection to ferroptosis, a significant kind of cell death characterized by iron dependence and oxidative stress regulation. Furthermore, updated molecular insights have elucidated the significance of mitochondria in ferroptosis and its implications in various cancers. In the context of cancer therapy, understanding the dual role of anastasis and ferroptosis in chemoresistance is crucial. Targeting the molecular pathways involved in anastasis may enhance the efficacy of ferroptosis inducers, providing a synergistic approach to overcome chemoresistance. Research into how DNA damage response (DDR) proteins, metabolic changes, and redox states interact during anastasis and ferroptosis can offer new insights into designing combinatorial therapeutic regimens against several cancers associated with stemness. These treatments could potentially inhibit anastasis while simultaneously inducing ferroptosis, thereby reducing the likelihood of cancer cells evading death and developing resistance to chemotherapy. The objective of this study is to explore the intricate interplay between anastasis, ferroptosis, EMT and chemoresistance, and immunotherapeutics to better understand their collective impact on cancer therapy outcomes. We searched public research databases including google scholar, PubMed, relemed, and the national library of medicine related to this topic. In this review, we discussed the interplay between the tricarboxylic acid cycle and glycolysis implicated in modulating ferroptosis, adding complexity to its regulatory mechanisms. Additionally, the regulatory role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the electron transport chain (ETC) in ferroptosis has garnered significant attention. Lipid metabolism, particularly involving GPX4 and System Xc- plays a significant role in both the progression of ferroptosis and cancer. There is a need to investigate the intricate interplay between anastasis, ferroptosis, and chemoresistance to better understand cancer therapy clinical outcomes. Integrating anastasis, and ferroptosis into strategies targeting chemoresistance and exploring its potential synergy with immunotherapy represent promising avenues for advancing chemoresistant cancer treatment. Understanding the intricate interplay among mitochondria, anastasis, ROS, and ferroptosis is vital in oncology, potentially revolutionizing personalized cancer treatment and drug development.

Exploring the relationship between anastasis and mitochondrial ROS-mediated ferroptosis in metastatic chemoresistant cancers: a call for investigation

Ferroptosis induces significant changes in mitochondrial morphology, including membrane condensation, volume reduction, cristae alteration, and outer membrane rupture, affecting mitochondrial function and cellular fate. Recent reports have described the intrinsic cellular iron metabolism and its intricate connection to ferroptosis, a significant kind of cell death characterized by iron dependence and oxidative stress regulation. Furthermore, updated molecular insights have elucidated the significance of mitochondria in ferroptosis and its implications in various cancers. In the context of cancer therapy, understanding the dual role of anastasis and ferroptosis in chemoresistance is crucial. Targeting the molecular pathways involved in anastasis may enhance the efficacy of ferroptosis inducers, providing a synergistic approach to overcome chemoresistance. Research into how DNA damage response (DDR) proteins, metabolic changes, and redox states interact during anastasis and ferroptosis can offer new insights into designing combinatorial therapeutic regimens against several cancers associated with stemness. These treatments could potentially inhibit anastasis while simultaneously inducing ferroptosis, thereby reducing the likelihood of cancer cells evading death and developing resistance to chemotherapy. The objective of this study is to explore the intricate interplay between anastasis, ferroptosis, EMT and chemoresistance, and immunotherapeutics to better understand their collective impact on cancer therapy outcomes. We searched public research databases including google scholar, PubMed, relemed, and the national library of medicine related to this topic. In this review, we discussed the interplay between the tricarboxylic acid cycle and glycolysis implicated in modulating ferroptosis, adding complexity to its regulatory mechanisms. Additionally, the regulatory role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the electron transport chain (ETC) in ferroptosis has garnered significant attention. Lipid metabolism, particularly involving GPX4 and System Xc- plays a significant role in both the progression of ferroptosis and cancer. There is a need to investigate the intricate interplay between anastasis, ferroptosis, and chemoresistance to better understand cancer therapy clinical outcomes. Integrating anastasis, and ferroptosis into strategies targeting chemoresistance and exploring its potential synergy with immunotherapy represent promising avenues for advancing chemoresistant cancer treatment. Understanding the intricate interplay among mitochondria, anastasis, ROS, and ferroptosis is vital in oncology, potentially revolutionizing personalized cancer treatment and drug development.

Ferric reduction by a CYBDOM protein counteracts increased iron availability in root meristems induced by phosphorus deficiency

To mobilize sparingly available phosphorus (P) in the rhizosphere, many plant species secrete malate to release P sorbed onto (hydr)oxides of aluminum and iron (Fe). In the presence of Fe, malate can provoke Fe over-accumulation in the root apoplast, triggering a series of events that inhibit root growth. Here, we identified HYPERSENSITIVE TO LOW P1 (HYP1), a CYBDOM protein constituted of a DOMON and a cytochrome b561 domain, as critical to maintain cell elongation and meristem integrity under low P. We demonstrate that HYP1 mediates ascorbate-dependent trans-plasma membrane electron transport and can reduce ferric and cupric substrates in Xenopus laevis oocytes and in planta. HYP1 expression is up-regulated in response to P deficiency in the proximal zone of the root apical meristem. Disruption of HYP1 leads to increased Fe and callose accumulation in the root meristem and causes significant transcriptional changes in roots. We further demonstrate that HYP1 activity overcomes malate-induced Fe accumulation, thereby preventing Fe-dependent root growth arrest in response to low P. Collectively, our results uncover an ascorbate-dependent metalloreductase that is critical to protect root meristems of P-deficient plants from increased Fe availability and provide insights into the physiological function of the yet poorly characterized but ubiquitous CYBDOM proteins.

A CYBDOM protein impacts iron homeostasis and primary root growth under phosphate deficiency in Arabidopsis

Arabidopsis primary root growth response to phosphate (Pi) deficiency is mainly controlled by changes in apoplastic iron (Fe). Upon Pi deficiency, apoplastic Fe deposition in the root apical meristem activates pathways leading to the arrest of meristem maintenance and inhibition of cell elongation. Here, we report that a member of the uncharacterized cytochrome b561 and DOMON domain (CYBDOM) protein family, named CRR, promotes iron reduction in an ascorbate-dependent manner and controls apoplastic iron deposition. Under low Pi, the crr mutant shows an enhanced reduction of primary root growth associated with increased apoplastic Fe in the root meristem and a reduction in meristematic cell division. Conversely, CRR overexpression abolishes apoplastic Fe deposition rendering primary root growth insensitive to low Pi. The crr single mutant and crr hyp1 double mutant, harboring a null allele in another member of the CYDOM family, shows increased tolerance to high-Fe stress upon germination and seedling growth. Conversely, CRR overexpression is associated with increased uptake and translocation of Fe to the shoot and results in plants highly sensitive to Fe excess. Our results identify a ferric reductase implicated in Fe homeostasis and developmental responses to abiotic stress, and reveal a biological role for CYBDOM proteins in plants.

Comparison of insect and human cytochrome b561 proteins: Insights into candidate ferric reductases in insects

Cytochrome b561 (cytb561) proteins comprise a family of transmembrane oxidoreductases that transfer single electrons across a membrane. Most eukaryotic species, including insects, possess multiple cytb561 homologs. To learn more about this protein family in insects, we carried out a bioinformatics-based investigation of cytb561 family members from nine species representing eight insect orders. We performed a phylogenetic analysis to classify insect cytb561 ortholog groups. We then conducted sequence analyses and analyzed protein models to predict structural elements that may impact the biological functions and localization of these proteins, with a focus on possible ferric reductase activity. Our study revealed three ortholog groups, designated CG1275, Nemy, and CG8399, and a fourth group of less-conserved genes. We found that CG1275 and Nemy proteins are similar to a human ferric reductase, duodenal cytochrome b561 (Dcytb), and have many conserved amino acid residues that function in substrate binding in Dcytb. Notably, CG1275 and Nemy proteins contain a conserved histidine and other residues that play a role in ferric ion reduction by Dcytb. Nemy proteins were distinguished by a novel cysteine-rich cytoplasmic loop sequence. CG8399 orthologs are similar to a putative ferric reductase in humans, stromal cell-derived receptor 2. Like other members of the CYBDOM class of cytb561 proteins, these proteins contain reeler, DOMON, and cytb561 domains. Drosophila melanogaster CG8399 is the only insect cytb561 with known ferric reductase activity. Our investigation of the DOMON domain in CG8399 proteins revealed a probable heme-binding site and a possible site for ferric reduction. The fourth group includes a subgroup of proteins with a conserved "KXXXXKXH" non-cytoplasmic loop motif that may be a substrate binding site and is present in a potential ferric reductase, human tumor suppressor cytochrome b561. This study provides a foundation for future investigations of the biological functions of cytb561 genes in insects.

The IRONy in Athletic Performance

Iron is an essential micronutrient for athletes, intricately linked to their performance, by regulating cellular respiration and metabolism. Impaired iron levels in the body can significantly hinder athletic performance. The increased demand for iron due to exercise, coupled with potential dietary iron insufficiencies, particularly among endurance athletes, amplifies the risk of iron deficiency. Moreover, prolonged exercise can impact iron absorption, utilization, storage, and overall iron concentrations in an athlete. On the contrary, iron overload may initially lead to enhanced performance; however, chronic excess iron intake or underlying genetic conditions can lead to detrimental health consequences and may negatively impact athletic performance. Excess iron induces oxidative damage, not only compromising muscle function and recovery, but also affecting various tissues and organs in the body. This narrative review delineates the complex relationship between exercise and iron metabolism, and its profound effects on athletic performance. The article also provides guidance on managing iron intake through dietary adjustments, oral iron supplementation for performance enhancement in cases of deficiency, and strategies for addressing iron overload in athletes. Current research is focused on augmenting iron absorption by standardizing the route of administration while minimizing side effects. Additionally, there is ongoing work to identify inhibitors and activators that affect iron absorption, aiming to optimize the body's iron levels from dietary sources, supplements, and chelators. In summary, by refining the athletic diet, considering the timing and dosage of iron supplements for deficiency, and implementing chelation therapies for iron overload, we can effectively enhance athletic performance and overall well-being.

JAK/STAT signaling and cellular iron metabolism in hepatocellular carcinoma: therapeutic implications

Iron metabolism plays a crucial role in the development and progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the most common type of primary liver cancer. Iron is an essential micronutrient that is involved in many physiological processes, including oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, and cellular growth and differentiation. However, excessive iron accumulation in the liver has been linked to oxidative stress, inflammation, and DNA damage, which can increase the risk of HCC. Studies have shown that iron overload is common in patients with HCC and that it is associated with a poor prognosis and reduced survival rates. Various iron metabolism-related proteins and signaling pathways such as the JAK/STAT pathway are dysregulated in HCC. Moreover, reduced hepcidin expression was reported to promote HCC in a JAK/STAT pathway-dependent manner. Therefore, it is important to understand the crosstalk between iron metabolism and the JAK/STAT pathway to prevent or treat iron overload in HCC. Iron chelators can bind to iron and remove it from the body, but its effect on JAK/STAT pathway is unclear. Also, HCC can be targeted by using the JAK/STAT pathway inhibitors, but their effect on hepatic iron metabolism is not known. In this review, for the first time, we focus on the role of the JAK/STAT signaling pathway in regulating cellular iron metabolism and its association with the development of HCC. We also discuss novel pharmacological agents and their therapeutic potential in manipulating iron metabolism and JAK/STAT signaling in HCC.

Tonoplast cytochrome b561 is a transmembrane ascorbate-dependent monodehydroascorbate reductase: functional characterization of electron currents in plant vacuoles

Ascorbate (Asc) is a major redox buffer of plant cells, whose antioxidant activity depends on the ratio with its one-electron oxidation product monodehydroascorbate (MDHA). The cytoplasm contains millimolar concentrations of Asc and soluble enzymes that can regenerate Asc from MDHA or fully oxidized dehydroascorbate. Also, vacuoles contain Asc, but no soluble Asc-regenerating enzymes. Here, we show that vacuoles isolated from Arabidopsis mesophyll cells contain a tonoplast electron transport system that works as a reversible, Asc-dependent transmembrane MDHA oxidoreductase. Electron currents were measured by patch-clamp on isolated vacuoles and found to depend on the availability of Asc (electron donor) and ferricyanide or MDHA (electron acceptors) on opposite sides of the tonoplast. Electron currents were catalyzed by cytochrome b561 isoform A (CYB561A), a tonoplast redox protein with cytoplasmic and luminal Asc binding sites. The K_m for Asc of the luminal (4.5 mM) and cytoplasmic site (51 mM) reflected the physiological Asc concentrations in these compartments. The maximal current amplitude was similar in both directions. Mutant plants with impaired CYB561A expression showed no detectable trans-tonoplast electron currents and strong accumulation of leaf anthocyanins under excessive illumination, suggesting a redox-modulation exerted by CYB561A on the typical anthocyanin response to high-light stress.

Restoration of metal homeostasis: a potential strategy against neurodegenerative diseases

Metal homeostasis is critical to normal neurophysiological activity. Metal ions are involved in the development, metabolism, redox and neurotransmitter transmission of the central nervous system (CNS). Thus, disturbance of homeostasis (such as metal deficiency or excess) can result in serious consequences, including neurooxidative stress, excitotoxicity, neuroinflammation, and nerve cell death. The uptake, transport and metabolism of metal ions are highly regulated by ion channels. There is growing evidence that metal ion disorders and/or the dysfunction of ion channels contribute to the progression of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and multiple sclerosis (MS). Therefore, metal homeostasis-related signaling pathways are emerging as promising therapeutic targets for diverse neurological diseases. This review summarizes recent advances in the studies regarding the physiological and pathophysiological functions of metal ions and their channels, as well as their role in neurodegenerative diseases. In addition, currently available metal ion modulators and in vivo quantitative metal ion imaging methods are also discussed. Current work provides certain recommendations based on literatures and in-depth reflections to improve neurodegenerative diseases. Future studies should turn to crosstalk and interactions between different metal ions and their channels. Concomitant pharmacological interventions for two or more metal signaling pathways may offer clinical advantages in treating the neurodegenerative diseases.

Spectral and Redox Properties of a Recombinant Mouse Cytochrome b561 Protein Suggest Transmembrane Electron Transfer Function

Cytochrome b561 proteins (CYB561s) are integral membrane proteins with six trans-membrane domains, two heme-b redox centers, one on each side of the host membrane. The major characteristics of these proteins are their ascorbate reducibility and trans-membrane electron transferring capability. More than one CYB561 can be found in a wide range of animal and plant phyla and they are localized in membranes different from the membranes participating in bioenergization. Two homologous proteins, both in humans and rodents, are thought to participate-via yet unidentified way-in cancer pathology. The recombinant forms of the human tumor suppressor 101F6 protein (Hs_CYB561D2) and its mouse ortholog (Mm_CYB561D2) have already been studied in some detail. However, nothing has yet been published about the physical-chemical properties of their homologues (Hs_CYB561D1 in humans and Mm_CYB561D1 in mice). In this paper we present optical, redox and structural properties of the recombinant Mm_CYB561D1, obtained based on various spectroscopic methods and homology modeling. The results are discussed in comparison to similar properties of the other members of the CYB561 protein family.

Iron metabolism: pathways and proteins in homeostasis

Iron is essential to human survival. The biological role and trafficking of this trace essential inorganic element which is also a potential toxin is constantly being researched and unfolded. Vital for oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, electron transport, neurotransmitter biosynthesis and present in numerous other heme and non-heme enzymes the physiological roles are immense. Understanding the molecules and pathways that regulate this essential element at systemic and cellular levels are of importance in improving therapeutic strategies for iron related disorders. This review highlights the progress in understanding the metabolism and trafficking of iron along with the pathophysiology of iron related disorders.

Iron-Induced Hepatocarcinogenesis—Preventive Effects of Nutrients

The liver is a primary organ that stores body iron, and plays a central role in the regulation of iron homeostasis. Hepatic iron overload (HIO) is a prevalent feature among patients with chronic liver diseases (CLDs), including alcoholic/nonalcoholic liver diseases and hepatitis C. HIO is suggested to promote the progression toward hepatocellular carcinoma because of the pro-oxidant nature of iron. Iron metabolism is tightly regulated by various factors, such as hepcidin and ferroportin, in healthy individuals to protect the liver from such deteriorative effects. However, their intrinsic expressions or functions are frequently compromised in patients with HIO. Thus, various nutrients have been reported to regulate hepatic iron metabolism and protect the liver from iron-induced damage. These nutrients are beneficial in HIO-associated CLD treatment and eventually prevent iron-mediated hepatocarcinogenesis. This mini-review aimed to discuss the mechanisms and hepatocarcinogenic risk of HIO in patients with CLDs. Moreover, nutrients that hold the potential to prevent iron-induced hepatocarcinogenesis are summarized.

Redox Properties of Human Erythrocytes Are Adapted for Vitamin C Recycling

Ascorbic acid (AA; or vitamin C) is an important physiological antioxidant and radical scavenger. Some mammalian species, including homo sapiens, have lost the ability to synthetize AA and depend on its nutritional uptake. Erythrocytes from AA-auxotroph mammals express high amounts of the glucose transporter GLUT1. This isoform enables rapid uptake of glucose as well as dehydroascorbate (DHA), the fully oxidized form of AA. Here, we explored the effects of DHA uptake on the redox metabolism of human erythrocytes. DHA uptake enhanced plasma membrane electron transport (PMET) activity. This process is mediated by DCytb, a membrane bound cytochrome catalyzing extracellular reduction of Fe³⁺ and ascorbate free radical (AFR), the first oxidized form of AA. DHA uptake also decreased cellular radical oxygen species (ROS) levels. Both effects were massively enhanced in the presence of physiological glucose concentrations. Reduction of DHA to AA largely depleted intracellular glutathione (GSH) and induced the efflux of its oxidized form, GSSG. GSSG efflux could be inhibited by MK-571 (IC₅₀ = 5 μM), indicating involvement of multidrug resistance associated protein (MRP1/4). DHA-dependent GSH depletion and GSSG efflux were completely rescued in the presence of 5 mM glucose and, partially, by 2-deoxy-glucose (2-DG), respectively. These findings indicate that human erythrocytes are physiologically adapted to recycle AA both intracellularly via GLUT1-mediated DHA uptake and reduction and extracellularly via DCytb-mediated AFR reduction. We discuss the possibility that this improved erythrocyte-mediated AA recycling was a prerequisite for the emergence of AA auxotrophy which independently occurred at least twice during mammalian evolution.

Iron homeostasis and organismal aging

Iron is indispensable for normal body functions across species because of its critical roles in red blood cell function and many essential proteins and enzymes required for numerous physiological processes. Regulation of iron homeostasis is an intricate process involving multiple modulators at the systemic, cellular, and molecular levels. Interestingly, emerging evidence has demonstrated that many modulators of iron homeostasis contribute to organismal aging and longevity. On the other hand, the age-related dysregulation of iron homeostasis is often associated with multiple age-related pathologies including bone resorption and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. Thus, a thorough understanding on the interconnections between systemic and cellular iron balance and organismal aging may help decipher the etiologies of multiple age-related diseases, which could ultimately lead to developing therapeutic strategies to delay aging and treat various age-related diseases. Here we present the current understanding on the mechanisms of iron homeostasis. We also discuss the impacts of aging on iron homeostatic processes and how dysregulated iron metabolism may affect aging and organismal longevity.

Quercetin attenuates neurotoxicity induced by iron oxide nanoparticles

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) have been proposed as targeted carriers to deliver therapeutic molecules in the central nervous system (CNS). However, IONPs may damage neural tissue via free iron accumulation, protein aggregation, and oxidative stress. Neuroprotective effects of quercetin (QC) have been proven due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. However, poor solubility and low bioavailability of QC have also led researchers to make various QC-involved nanoparticles to overcome these limitations. We wondered how high doses or prolonged treatment with quercetin conjugated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (QCSPIONs) could improve cognitive dysfunction and promote neurogenesis without any toxicity. It can be explained that the QC inhibits protein aggregation and acts against iron overload via iron-chelating activity, iron homeostasis genes regulation, radical scavenging, and attenuation of Fenton/Haber-Weiss reaction. In this review, first, we present brain iron homeostasis, molecular mechanisms of iron overload that induced neurotoxicity, and the role of iron in dementia-associated diseases. Then by providing evidence of IONPs neurotoxicity, we discuss how QC neutralizes IONPs neurotoxicity, and finally, we make a brief comparison between QC and conventional iron chelators. In this review, we highlight that QC as supplementation and especially in conjugated form reduces iron oxide nanoparticles neurotoxicity in clinical application.

A holistic view of mammalian (vertebrate) cellular iron uptake

Cell iron uptake in mammals is commonly distinguished by whether the iron is presented to the cell as transferrin-bound or not: TBI or NTBI. This generic perspective conflates TBI with canonical transferrin receptor, endosomal iron uptake, and NTBI with uptake supported by a plasma membrane-localized divalent metal ion transporter, most often identified as DMT1. In fact, iron uptake by mammalian cells is far more nuanced than this somewhat proscribed view suggests. This view fails to accommodate the substantial role that ZIP8 and ZIP14 play in iron uptake, while adhering to the traditional premise that a relatively high endosomal [H+] is thermodynamically required for release of iron from holo-Tf. The canonical view of iron uptake also does not encompass the fact that plasma membrane electron transport - PMET - has long been linked to cell iron uptake. In fact, the known mammalian metallo-reductases - Dcytb and the STEAP proteins - are members of this cohort of cytochrome-dependent oxido-reductases that shuttle reducing equivalents across the plasma membrane. A not commonly appreciated fact is the reduction potential of ferric iron in holo-Tf is accessible to cytoplasmic reducing equivalents - reduced pyridine and flavin mono- and di-nucleotides and dihydroascorbic acid. This allows for the reductive release of Fe2+ at the extracellular surface of the PM and subsequent transport into the cytoplasm by a neutral pH transporter - a ZIP protein. What this perspective emphasizes is that there are two TfR-dependent uptake pathways, one which does and one which does not involve clathrin-dependent, endolysosomal trafficking. This raises the question as to the selective advantage of having two Tf, TfR-dependent routes of iron accumulation. This review of canonical and non-canonical iron uptake uses cerebral iron trafficking as a point of discussion, a focus that encourages inclusion also of the importance of ferritin as a circulating 'chaperone' of ferric iron.

An Analysis of the Multifaceted Roles of Heme in the Pathogenesis of Cancer and Related Diseases

Heme is an essential prosthetic group in proteins and enzymes involved in oxygen utilization and metabolism. Heme also plays versatile and fascinating roles in regulating fundamental biological processes, ranging from aerobic respiration to drug metabolism. Increasing experimental and epidemiological data have shown that altered heme homeostasis accelerates the development and progression of common diseases, including various cancers, diabetes, vascular diseases, and Alzheimer's disease. The effects of heme on the pathogenesis of these diseases may be mediated via its action on various cellular signaling and regulatory proteins, as well as its function in cellular bioenergetics, specifically, oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). Elevated heme levels in cancer cells intensify OXPHOS, leading to higher ATP generation and fueling tumorigenic functions. In contrast, lowered heme levels in neurons may reduce OXPHOS, leading to defects in bioenergetics and causing neurological deficits. Further, heme has been shown to modulate the activities of diverse cellular proteins influencing disease pathogenesis. These include BTB and CNC homology 1 (BACH1), tumor suppressor P53 protein, progesterone receptor membrane component 1 protein (PGRMC1), cystathionine-β-synthase (CBS), soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC), and nitric oxide synthases (NOS). This review provides an in-depth analysis of heme function in influencing diverse molecular and cellular processes germane to disease pathogenesis and the modes by which heme modulates the activities of cellular proteins involved in the development of cancer and other common diseases.

An Elegant Four-Helical Fold in NOX and STEAP Enzymes Facilitates Electron Transport across Biomembranes-Similar Vehicle, Different Destination

The ferric reductase superfamily comprises several oxidoreductases that use an intracellular electron source to reduce an extracellular acceptor substrate. NADPH oxidases (NOXs) and six-transmembrane epithelial antigen of the prostate enzymes (STEAPs) are iconic members of the superfamily. NOXs produce extracellular reactive oxygen species that exert potent bactericidal activities and trigger redox-signaling cascades that regulate cell division and differentiation. STEAPs catalyze the reduction of extracellular iron and copper which is necessary for the bioavailability of these essential elements. Both NOXs and STEAPs are present as multiple isozymes with distinct regulatory properties and physiological roles. Despite the important roles of NOXs and STEAPs in human physiology and despite their wide involvement in diseases like cancer, their mode of action at the molecular level remained incompletely understood for a long time, in part due to the absence of high-resolution models of the complete enzymes. Our two laboratories have elucidated the three-dimensional structures of NOXs and STEAPs, providing key insight into their mechanisms and evolution. The enzymes share a conserved transmembrane helical domain with an eye-catching hourglass shape. On the extracellular side, a heme prosthetic group is at the bottom of a pocket where the substrate (O₂ in NOX, chelated iron or copper in STEAP) is reduced. On the intracellular side, the inner heme of NOX and the FAD of STEAP are bound to topological equivalent sites. This is a rare case where critical amino acid substitutions and local conformational changes enable a cofactor (heme vs FAD) swap between two structurally and functionally conserved scaffolds. The catalytic core of these enzymes is completed by distinct cytosolic NADPH-binding domains that are topologically unrelated (a ferredoxin reductase-like flavoprotein domain in NOX and a F₄₂₀H₂:NADP⁺-like domain in STEAP), feature different quaternary structures, and underlie specific regulatory mechanisms. Despite their differences, these domains all establish electron-transfer chains that direct the electrons from NADPH to the transmembrane domain. The multistep nature of the process and the chemical nature of the products pose considerable problems in the enzymatic assays. We learned that great care must be exerted in the validation of a candidate inhibitor. Multiple orthogonal assays are required to rule out off-target effects such as ROS-scavenging activities or nonspecific interference with the enzyme redox chain. The structural analysis of STEAP/NOX enzymes led us to further notice that their transmembrane heme-binding topology is shared by other enzymes. We found that the core domain of the cytochrome b subunits of the mitochondrial complex III and photosynthetic cytochrome b6f are closely related to NOXs and STEAPs and likely arose from the same ancestor protein. This observation expands the substrate portfolio of the superfamily since cytochromes b act on ubiquinone. The rigidly packed helices of the NOX/STEAP/cytochrome b domain contrast with the more malleable membrane proteins like ion channels or amino-acid transporters, which undergo large conformational changes to allow passage of relatively large metabolites. This notion of a rigid hourglass scaffold found an unexpected confirmation in the observation, revealed by structural comparisons, that an helical bundle identical to the NOX/STEAP/cytochrome b enzymes is featured by a de novo designed heme-binding protein, PS1. Apparently, nature and protein designers have independently converged to this fold as a versatile scaffold for heme-mediated reactions. The challenge is now to uncover the molecular mechanisms that implement the isozyme-specific regulation of the enzyme functions and develop much needed inhibitors and modulators for chemical biology and drug design studies.

Structures of mouse DUOX1-DUOXA1 provide mechanistic insights into enzyme activation and regulation

DUOX1, a NADPH oxidase family member, catalyzes the production of hydrogen peroxide. DUOX1 is expressed in various tissues, including thyroid and respiratory tract, and plays a crucial role in processes such as thyroid hormone biosynthesis and innate host defense. DUOX1 co-assembles with its maturation factor DUOXA1 to form an active enzyme complex. However, the molecular mechanisms for activation and regulation of DUOX1 remain mostly unclear. Here I present cryo-EM structures of the mammalian DUOX1–DUOXA1 complex, in the absence and presence of substrate NADPH, as well as DUOX1–DUOXA1 in an unexpected dimer-of-dimer configuration. These structures reveal atomic details of the DUOX1–DUOXA1 interaction, a lipid-mediated NADPH-binding pocket and the electron transfer path. Furthermore, biochemical and structural analyses indicate that the dimer-of-dimer configuration represents an inactive state of DUOX1–DUOXA1, suggesting an oligomerization-dependent regulatory mechanism. Together, my work provides structural bases for DUOX1–DUOXA1 activation and regulation.

Competitors versus Collaborators: Micronutrient Processing by Pathogenic and Commensal Human-Associated Gut Bacteria

Co-evolution of gut commensal bacteria and humans has ensured that the micronutrient needs of both parties are met. This minireview summarizes the known molecular mechanisms of iron, zinc, and B vitamin processing by human-associated bacteria, comparing gut pathogens and commensals, and highlights the tension between their roles as competitors versus collaborators with the human host.

Clostridioides difficile Senses and Hijacks Host Heme for Incorporation into an Oxidative Stress Defense System

Clostridioides difficile infection of the colon leads to severe inflammation and damage to the gastrointestinal epithelium due to the production of potent toxins. This inflammatory tissue damage causes the liberation of high concentrations of host heme at infection sites. Here, we identify the C. difficile heme-sensing membrane protein system (HsmRA) and show that this operon induces a protective response that repurposes heme to counteract antimicrobial oxidative stress responses. HsmR senses vertebrate heme, leading to increased expression of the hsmRA operon and subsequent deployment of HsmA to capture heme and reduce redox damage caused by inflammatory mediators of protection and antibiotic therapy. Strains with inactivated hsmR or hsmA have increased sensitivity to redox-active compounds and reduced colonization persistence in a murine model of relapse C. difficile infection. These results define a mechanism exploited by C. difficile to repurpose toxic heme within the inflamed gut as a shield against antimicrobial compounds.

Direct measurements of ferric reductase activity of human 101F6 and its enhancement upon reconstitution into phospholipid bilayer nanodisc

We studied human 101F6 protein to clarify its physiological function as a ferric reductase and its relationship to tumor suppression activity. We found for the first time that purified 101F6 both in detergent micelle state and in phospholipid bilayer nanodisc state has an authentic ferric reductase activity by single turnover kinetic analyses. The kinetic analysis on the ferrous heme oxidation of reduced 101F6 upon the addition of a ferric substrate, ferric ammonium citrate (FAC), showed concentration-dependent accelerations of its reaction with reasonable values of K_M and V_max. We further verified the authenticity of the ferric reductase activity of 101F6 using nitroso-PSAP as a Fe²⁺-specific colorimetric chelator. 101F6 in nanodisc state showed higher efficiency for FAC than in detergent micelle state.

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Human tumor suppressor 101F6 protein was reconstituted into nanodisc.

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101F6 functions as a ferric reductase both in detergent micelle and in nanodisc.

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101F6 in nanodisc showed higher efficiency in the reductase activity.

Heme: emergent roles of heme in signal transduction, functional regulation and as catalytic centres

Molecular mechanisms of unprecedented functions of exchangeable/labile heme and heme proteins including transcription, DNA binding, protein kinase activity, K⁺ channel functions, cis–trans isomerization, N–N bond formation, and other functions are described.

New Perspectives on Iron Uptake in Eukaryotes

All eukaryotic organisms require iron to function. Malfunctions within iron homeostasis have a range of physiological consequences, and can lead to the development of pathological conditions that can result in an excess of non-transferrin bound iron (NTBI). Despite extensive understanding of iron homeostasis, the links between the “macroscopic” transport of iron across biological barriers (cellular membranes) and the chemistry of redox changes that drive these processes still needs elucidating. This review draws conclusions from the current literature, and describes some of the underlying biophysical and biochemical processes that occur in iron homeostasis. By first taking a broad view of iron uptake within the gut and subsequent delivery to tissues, in addition to describing the transferrin and non-transferrin mediated components of these processes, we provide a base of knowledge from which we further explore NTBI uptake. We provide concise up-to-date information of the transplasma electron transport systems (tPMETSs) involved within NTBI uptake, and highlight how these systems are not only involved within NTBI uptake for detoxification but also may play a role within the reduction of metabolic stress through regeneration of intracellular NAD(P)H/NAD(P)⁺ levels. Furthermore, we illuminate the thermodynamics that governs iron transport, namely the redox potential cascade and electrochemical behavior of key components of the electron transport systems that facilitate the movement of electrons across the plasma membrane to the extracellular compartment. We also take account of kinetic changes that occur to transport iron into the cell, namely membrane dipole change and their consequent effects within membrane structure that act to facilitate transport of ions.