Functional analysis in a model sea anemone reveals phylogenetic complexity and a role in cnidocyte discharge of DEG/ENaC ion channels

Global analysis of ligand-gated ion channel conservation across Platyhelminthes

Ligand-gated ion channels (LGICs) are critical for neurotransmission, mediating responses to neurotransmitters and hormones, and influencing diverse physiological processes. This study identifies and classifies LGICs across Platyhelminthes, with a particular focus on parasitic neodermatans, which impact human and animal health. Using bioinformatics tools, we analyzed LGICs from 41 neodermatan species and expanded our investigation to encompass vertebrates, other invertebrates, and non-bilaterians to trace LGIC evolutionary pathways across Metazoa. We identified 2,269 putative LGICs within neodermatan species, which we classified into the cys-loop, ASIC/Deg/ENaC, iGluR, and P2X families. Our phylogenetic and clustering analyses reveal lineage-specific patterns with distinct evolutionary trajectories for each LGIC family in neodermatans compared to free-living platyhelminths and other taxa. Notably, the ASIC/Deg/ENaC family displayed the greatest degree of neodermatan-specific divergence, while cys-loop and P2X families were more conserved across taxa. To provide insight into their potential physiological roles, we analyzed LGIC expression patterns in Schistosoma mansoni, revealing widespread expression across neuronal and muscle cell types. The distribution of acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) in both neurons and muscles suggests a role in neuromuscular signalling, while the P2X receptor (Smp_333600) exhibited sex-specific expression, potentially indicating distinct functional roles in males and females. Additionally, several cys-loop acetylcholine and GABA receptors showed differential neuronal and muscle expression, highlighting their likely contributions to cholinergic and inhibitory neurotransmission. These findings underscore the relevance of LGICs in parasite physiology, particularly in neuromuscular and sensory processes, and suggest potential targets for antiparasitic interventions.

Diarylamidine activation of a brachiopod DEG/ENaC/ASIC channel

Diarylamidines are a group of widely used small molecule drugs. One common use of diarylamidines is their pharmacological inhibition of ligand-gated cation channels, including tetrameric ionotropic glutamate receptors and trimeric degenerin/epithelial sodium channel/acid-sensing ion channels. Here, we discover a degenerin/epithelial sodium channel/acid-sensing ion channel from the brachiopod (lamp shell) Novocrania anomala, at which diarylamidines act as agonists. The channel is closely related to bile acid-gated, pH-gated, and peptide-gated channels but is not activated by such stimuli. We describe activation of the channel by diminazene, 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole, and pentamidine, examine several biophysical and pharmacological properties, and briefly explore the molecular determinants of channel activity with site-directed mutagenesis. We term this channel the diarylamidine-activated sodium channel.

A conserved peptide-binding pocket in HyNaC/ASIC ion channels

The only known peptide-gated ion channels-FaNaCs/WaNaCs and HyNaCs-belong to different clades of the DEG/ENaC family. FaNaCs are activated by the short neuropeptide FMRFamide, and HyNaCs by Hydra RFamides, which are not evolutionarily related to FMRFamide. The FMRFamide-binding site in FaNaCs was recently identified in a cleft atop the large extracellular domain. However, this cleft is not conserved in HyNaCs. Here, we combined molecular modeling and site-directed mutagenesis and identified a putative binding pocket for Hydra-RFamides in the extracellular domain of the heterotrimeric HyNaC2/3/5. This pocket localizes to only one of the three subunit interfaces, indicating that this trimeric ion channel binds a single peptide ligand. We engineered an unnatural amino acid at the putative binding pocket entrance, which allowed covalent tethering of Hydra RFamide to the channel, thereby trapping the channel in an open conformation. The identified pocket localizes to the same region as the acidic pocket of acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs), which binds peptide ligands. The pocket in HyNaCs is less acidic, and both electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions contribute to peptide binding. Collectively, our results reveal a conserved ligand-binding pocket in HyNaCs and ASICs and indicate independent evolution of peptide-binding cavities in the two subgroups of peptide-gated ion channels.

Adaptive Cellular Radiations and the Genetic Mechanisms Underlying Animal Nervous System Diversification

In animals, the nervous system evolved as the primary interface between multicellular organisms and the environment. As organisms became larger and more complex, the primary functions of the nervous system expanded to include the modulation and coordination of individual responsive cells via paracrine and synaptic functions as well as to monitor and maintain the organism's own internal environment. This was initially accomplished via paracrine signaling and eventually through the assembly of multicell circuits in some lineages. Cells with similar functions and centralized nervous systems have independently arisen in several lineages. We highlight the molecular mechanisms that underlie parallel diversifications of the nervous system.

Acid-sensing ion channels and downstream signalling in cancer cells: is there a mechanistic link?

It is increasingly appreciated that the acidic microenvironment of a tumour contributes to its evolution and clinical outcomes. However, our understanding of the mechanisms by which tumour cells detect acidosis and the signalling cascades that it induces is still limited. Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are sensitive receptors for protons; therefore, they are also candidates for proton sensors in tumour cells. Although in non-transformed tissue, their expression is mainly restricted to neurons, an increasing number of studies have reported ectopic expression of ASICs not only in brain cancer but also in different carcinomas, such as breast and pancreatic cancer. However, because ASICs are best known as desensitizing ionotropic receptors that mediate rapid but transient signalling, how they trigger intracellular signalling cascades is not well understood. In this review, we introduce the acidic microenvironment of tumours and the functional properties of ASICs, point out some conceptual problems, summarize reported roles of ASICs in different cancers, and highlight open questions on the mechanisms of their action in cancer cells. Finally, we propose guidelines to keep ASIC research in cancer on solid ground.

Structural basis for excitatory neuropeptide signaling

Rapid signaling between neurons is mediated by ligand-gated ion channels, cell-surface proteins with an extracellular ligand-binding domain and a membrane-spanning ion channel domain. The degenerin/epithelial sodium channel (DEG/ENaC) superfamily is diverse in terms of its gating stimuli, with some DEG/ENaCs gated by neuropeptides, and others gated by pH, mechanical force or enzymatic activity. The mechanism by which ligands bind to and activate DEG/ENaCs is poorly understood. Here we dissected the structural basis for neuropeptide-gated activity of a neuropeptide-gated DEG/ENaC, FMRFamide-gated sodium channel 1 (FaNaC1) from the annelid worm Malacoceros fuliginosus, using cryo-electron microscopy. Structures of FaNaC1 in the ligand-free resting state and in several ligand-bound states reveal the ligand-binding site and capture the ligand-induced conformational changes of channel gating, which we verified with complementary mutagenesis experiments. Our results illuminate channel gating in DEG/ENaCs and offer a structural template for experimental dissection of channel pharmacology and ion conduction.

Molecular tuning of sea anemone stinging

Jellyfish and sea anemones fire single-use, venom-covered barbs to immobilize prey or predators. We previously showed that the anemone Nematostella vectensis uses a specialized voltage-gated calcium (CaV) channel to trigger stinging in response to synergistic prey-derived chemicals and touch (Weir et al., 2020). Here, we use experiments and theory to find that stinging behavior is suited to distinct ecological niches. We find that the burrowing anemone Nematostella uses uniquely strong CaV inactivation for precise control of predatory stinging. In contrast, the related anemone Exaiptasia diaphana inhabits exposed environments to support photosynthetic endosymbionts. Consistent with its niche, Exaiptasia indiscriminately stings for defense and expresses a CaV splice variant that confers weak inactivation. Chimeric analyses reveal that CaVβ subunit adaptations regulate inactivation, suggesting an evolutionary tuning mechanism for stinging behavior. These findings demonstrate how functional specialization of ion channel structure contributes to distinct organismal behavior.

Molecular tuning of sea anemone stinging

Jellyfish and sea anemones fire single-use, venom-covered barbs to immobilize prey or predators. We previously showed that the anemone Nematostella vectensis uses a specialized voltage-gated calcium (CaV) channel to trigger stinging in response to synergistic prey-derived chemicals and touch (Weir et al., 2020). Here we use experiments and theory to find that stinging behavior is suited to distinct ecological niches. We find that the burrowing anemone Nematostella uses uniquely strong CaV inactivation for precise control of predatory stinging. In contrast, the related anemone Exaiptasia diaphana inhabits exposed environments to support photosynthetic endosymbionts. Consistent with its niche, Exaiptasia indiscriminately stings for defense and expresses a CaV splice variant that confers weak inactivation. Chimeric analyses reveal that CaVβ subunit adaptations regulate inactivation, suggesting an evolutionary tuning mechanism for stinging behavior. These findings demonstrate how functional specialization of ion channel structure contributes to distinct organismal behavior.

Function and phylogeny support the independent evolution of an ASIC-like Deg/ENaC channel in the Placozoa

ASIC channels are bilaterian proton-gated sodium channels belonging to the large and functionally-diverse Deg/ENaC family that also includes peptide- and mechanically-gated channels. Here, we report that the non-bilaterian invertebrate Trichoplax adhaerens possesses a proton-activated Deg/ENaC channel, TadNaC2, with a unique combination of biophysical features including tachyphylaxis like ASIC1a, reduced proton sensitivity like ASIC2a, biphasic macroscopic currents like ASIC3, as well as low sensitivity to the Deg/ENaC channel blocker amiloride and Ca2+ ions. Structural modeling and mutation analyses reveal that TadNaC2 proton gating is different from ASIC channels, lacking key molecular determinants, and involving unique residues within the palm and finger regions. Phylogenetic analysis reveals that a monophyletic clade of T. adhaerens Deg/ENaC channels, which includes TadNaC2, is phylogenetically distinct from ASIC channels, instead forming a clade with BASIC channels. Altogether, this work suggests that ASIC-like channels evolved independently in T. adhaerens and its phylum Placozoa. Our phylogenetic analysis also identifies several clades of uncharacterized metazoan Deg/ENaC channels, and provides phylogenetic evidence for the existence of Deg/ENaC channels outside of Metazoa, present in the gene data of select unicellular heterokont and filasterea-related species.