The unequal burden of human-wildlife conflict

Deciphering the enigma of human-lion coexistence in India

Asiatic lions (Panthera leo leo) have increased in range and abundance in densely populated India, a rare example of coexistence between humans and large carnivores. We sought to determine the underlying mechanisms of this coexistence and to infer lessons that could help conserve carnivores in multiuse landscapes, globally. Using data collected from 2012 to 2017 from conflict-compensation records, we studied the spatiotemporal trends in human-lion conflict across the lion's range in India. We also surveyed 1434 people from 277 villages across the gradient of conflict to better understand their tolerance of lions. The cumulative number of villages that registered attacks on livestock increased by 105 (9.61%) per year, suggestive of an expanding lion population. Livestock killed per village increased by 15% per year, indicative of increasing lion density. Attacks on humans averaged 20.8 (SE 2.3) per year and showed no trend. Attacks on humans were spatially correlated with livestock predation, and both were best explained by proximity to lion tourism areas, lion habitat, and areas with low lion density. Intolerance of lions was related to economic losses (49.8%) and fear of lions (43.9%). Communities that lived longer with lions had higher probability of tolerating lions and practiced livestock-rearing techniques that minimized predation. Human-lion coexistence is common in India as indicated by 61% of respondents being tolerant of lions. This coexistence is related to a mix of sociocultural tolerance, enforced legal protection, government compensation, and mutual adaptation of humans and lions to each other. Lions receive food subsidies from people and space, and local communities have enhanced livelihoods through tourism and bolstered sociocultural norms. Institutionalizing lion-based ecotourism on community lands could support coexistence in the long term. Only through such participatory and profitable land-sharing approaches can we best sync the well-being of local communities with sustainable carnivore conservation.

International disparities in conservation priorities are more complicated than Global North-Global South divisions

Two enduring ideological divisions in biodiversity conservation concern whether conservation should prioritize (i) the interests of people or wild animals and (ii) the interests of individual animals or groups of animals. Public debates suggest that people living in the Global North more strongly prioritize the interests of wild animals over people and the interests of individual animals over groups of animals. To examine this possibility, we measured and compared conservation priorities across 10 international publics living in rural and urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa, the United States of America (USA) and the United Kingdom (UK). Overall, distant respondents (i.e. living in the UK, USA and urban sub-Saharan Africa) more strongly prioritized the interests of wild animals over people and the interests of individual animals over groups of animals. Moreover, variation among local publics (i.e. living in high-biodiversity areas of rural sub-Saharan Africa) was greater than among distant publics. Our findings illuminate how ideological divisions may complicate international biodiversity conservation, especially around controversial topics such as culling, hunting, transloaction and protected-areas management. Policies and programmes more acceptable to distant people may be less acceptable to local people, creating difficulties for decision-makers charged with balancing biodiversity conservation alongside the values, needs, interests and concerns of multiple publics.

Genetic Monitoring of a Lethal Control Programme for Wild Canids With Complex Mating Strategies

Although mammalian carnivores are ecologically important, they also drive human-wildlife conflicts. Managing carnivores using lethal control is controversial, in part because the impact of control effort is often uncertain due to limited abundance monitoring. We used an Australian metapopulation of wild dogs as a model system to investigate the feasibility of monitoring effective population size (N e ) to detect reductions in census population size (N c ) following control. Based on microsatellite data collected over an 11-year period, we parameterised an individual-based spatial population model for wild dogs that integrated demography, genetics, random or hierarchical mating, dispersal between subpopulations and compensatory immigration.N c andN ̂ e trajectories were simulated under different proportional culling rates and genetic sampling regimes. We also used simulations without culling as null models to define 95% critical values for assessing the significance of empirical changes inN ̂ e over time. We concluded there were significant reductions (39%-62%) inN ̂ e in each subpopulation of the wild dog metapopulation, mostly likely due to control. In simulations assuming a hierarchical rather than random mating system, the impact of control onN c was weakened because reproduction by subordinate individuals increased as dominant individuals were removed, yetN ̂ e reduced following culling. Sensitivity analyses demonstrated thatN ̂ e becomes an unreliable proxy ofN c when compensatory immigration is strong and compensatory reproduction is weak, in which caseN ̂ e can increase following culling due to the immigration of new genotypes. Nonetheless, our results suggestN ̂ e can provide information about wild dogN c over sufficiently short timescales to inform management.

Creating constellations of coexistence through connections between people in human-wildlife conflict areas

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a critical challenge to human development and well-being and threatens biodiversity conservation. Ideally, HWC mitigation should benefit both wildlife and communities and limit the costs associated with living alongside wildlife. However, place- and context-dependent realizations of conflict are often overlooked in HWC mitigation. Social and systemic dimensions of human-wildlife relationships often receive limited consideration in HWC as a concept and in mitigation strategies implemented globally. In recognizing our collective symmetries as a diverse group of researchers, we pose the idea of constellations of coexistence, based on Atallah et al.'s "constellation of co-resistance." Building on literature and our interdisciplinary and cross-sectoral experiences of working with diverse species inhabiting different sociocultural, sociopolitical, and socioeconomic landscapes, we considered evidence of cultural nuances (e.g., sociocultural dimensions of human-elephant and human-lion interactions in East Africa and India) in HWC mitigation and argue that failing to incorporate them in mainstream practices poses a myriad of ethical and practical consequences. Locally situated but globally relevant, participation of local and Indigenous communities in HWC mitigation activities produces better conservation outcomes. Centering communities in the ideation, implementation, and evaluation of HWC mitigation promotes more equitable and sustainable management strategies for long-term human-wildlife coexistence.

Are agricultural commodity production systems at risk from local biodiversity loss?

Compelling evidence for feedbacks between commodity crop production systems and local ecosystems has led to predictions that biodiversity loss could threaten food security. However, for this to happen agricultural production systems must both impact and depend on the same components of biodiversity. Here, we review the evidence for and against the simultaneous impacts and dependencies of eight important commodity crops on biodiversity. We evaluate the risk that pollination, pest control or biodiversity-mediated soil health maintenance services are at risk from local biodiversity loss. We find that for key species groups such as ants, bees and birds, the production of commodities including coffee, cocoa and soya bean is indeed likely to be at risk from local biodiversity loss. However, we also identify several combinations of commodity, ecosystem service and component of biodiversity that are unlikely to lead to reinforcing feedbacks and lose-lose outcomes for biodiversity and agriculture. Furthermore, there are significant gaps in the evidence both for and against a mutualism between biodiversity and agricultural commodity production, highlighting the need for more evaluation of the importance of specific biodiversity groups to agricultural systems globally.

The global extent and severity of operational interactions between conflicting pinnipeds and fisheries

Recent population recovery of many pinniped species (seals, sea lions, walrus) is a conservation success. However, pinniped population recovery combined with increasing global fisheries operations is leading to increased conflicts between pinnipeds and fisheries. This human-wildlife conflict threatens pinniped conservation outcomes and may impose damaging impacts on fisheries, but the economic consequences and extent of these impacts are poorly understood. Here, we provide a global assessment of pinniped and fisheries operational interactions. We show that a third of reported fishing days have interactions with pinnipeds and 13.8% of catch is lost. Our results also reveal high heterogeneity between studies. Small-scale fisheries are three times more likely to interact with pinnipeds and lose four times as much catch as large-scale fisheries. Finally, we develop a spatial index that can predict where conflict is most likely to occur. Our findings reveal a substantial global issue requiring appropriate management as pinniped populations continue to recover.

Global expansion of human-wildlife overlap in the 21st century

Understanding the extent to which people and wildlife overlap in space and time is critical for the conservation of biodiversity and ecological services. Yet, how global change will reshape the future of human-wildlife overlap has not been assessed. We show that the potential spatial overlap of global human populations and 22,374 terrestrial vertebrate species will increase across ~56.6% and decrease across only ~11.8% of the Earth's terrestrial surface by 2070. Increases are driven primarily by intensification of human population densities, not change in wildlife distributions caused by climate change. The strong spatial heterogeneity of future human-wildlife overlap found in our study makes it clear that local context is imperative to consider, and more targeted area-based land-use planning should be integrated into systematic conservation planning.

Impact of carbon neutralization policy on the suitable habitat distribution of the North China leopard

The Chinese government has introduced a carbon neutral policy to cope with the rapid changes in the global climate. It is not clear what impact this policy will have on wildlife. Therefore, this study analyzed the suitable habitat distribution of China's unique leopard subspecies in northern Shaanxi, and simulated the potential suitable habitat distribution under different carbon emission scenarios at two time points of future carbon peak and carbon neutralization. We found that in the future SSPs 126 scenario, the suitable habitat area and the number of suitable habitat patches of North China leopard will continue to increase. With the increase of carbon emissions, it is expected that the suitable habitat of North China leopard will continue to be fragmented and shifted. When the annual average temperature is lower than 8 °C, the precipitation seasonality is 80-90 mm and the precipitation of the warmest quarter is greater than 260 mm, the probability of occurrence of North China leopard is higher. The increase in carbon emissions will lead to the reduction, migration, and fragmentation of the suitable habitat distribution of the North China leopard. Carbon neutrality policies can protect suitable wild habitats. In the future, the impact of carbon neutrality policies on future wildlife habitat protection should be carried out in depth to effectively promote the construction of wildlife protection projects.

Predator in proximity: how does a large carnivore respond to anthropogenic pressures at fine-scales? Implications for interface area management

Background

Driven by habitat loss and fragmentation, large carnivores are increasingly navigating human-dominated landscapes, where their activity is restricted and their behaviour altered. This movement, however, raises significant concerns and costs for people living nearby. While intricately linked, studies often isolate human and carnivore impacts, hindering effective management efforts. Hence, in this study, we brought these two into a common framework, focusing on an interface area between the critical tiger habitat and the human-dominated multiple-use buffer area of a central Indian protected area.

Methods

We employed a fine-scale camera trap survey complemented by GPS-collar movement data to understand spatio-temporal activity patterns and adjustments of tigers in response to anthropogenic pressures. We used an occupancy framework to evaluate space use, Bayesian circular GLMs to model temporal activity, and home range and step length analyses to assess the movement patterns of tigers. Further, we used predation-risk models to understand conflict patterns as a function of tiger presence and other habitat variables.

Results

Despite disturbance, a high proportion of the sampled area was occupied by 17 unique tigers (ψ = 0.76; CI [0.73-0.92]). The distance to villages (β ± SE = 0.63 ± 0.21) and the relative abundance of large-bodied wild prey (β ± SE = 0.72 ± 0.37) emerged as key predictors of tiger space use probability, indicating a preference for wild prey by tigers, while human influences constrained their habitat utilisation. Distance to villages was also identified as the most significant predictor of the tigers' temporal activity (μ ± σ = 3.03 ± 0.06 rad) that exhibited higher nocturnality near villages. A total of 11% of tiger home ranges were within village boundaries, accompanied by faster movement in these areas (displacement 40-82% higher). Livestock depredation probability by tigers increased with proximity to villages (P = 0.002) and highway (P = 0.003). Although tiger space use probability (P = 0.056) and wild prey abundance (P = 0.134) were non-significant at the 0.05 threshold, their presence in the best-fit predation-risk model suggests their contextual relevance for understanding conflict risk. The results highlight the importance of appropriately managing livestock near human infrastructures to effectively mitigate conflict.

Conclusions

Shared space of carnivores and humans requires dynamic site-specific actions grounded in evidence-based decision-making. This study emphasises the importance of concurrently addressing the intricate interactions between humans and large carnivores, particularly the latter's behavioural adaptations and role in conflict dynamics. Such an integrated approach is essential to unravel cause-effect relationships and promote effective interface management in human-dominated landscapes.

The importance of equity in payments to encourage coexistence with large mammals

Large mammals often impose significant costs such as livestock depredation or crop foraging on rural communities, and this can lead to the retaliatory killing of threatened wildlife populations. One conservation approach-payments to encourage coexistence (PEC)-aims to reduce these costs through financial mechanisms, such as compensation, insurance, revenue sharing, and conservation performance payments. Little is known about the equitability of PEC, however, despite its moral and instrumental importance, prevalence as a conservation approach, and the fact that other financial tools for conservation are often inequitable. We used examples from the literature to examine the capability of PEC-as currently perceived and implemented-to be inequitable. We recommend improving the equitability of current and future schemes through the cooperative design of schemes that promote compensatory equity and greater consideration of conservation performance payments and by changing the international model for funding PEC to reduce global coexistence inequalities. New and existing programs must address issues of equitability across scales to ensure that conservation efforts are not undermined by diminished social legitimacy.

Perceived Impacts of Wildlife on Agropastoral Food Production in Northern Tanzania

Human-wildlife interactions can affect human wellbeing and wildlife population persistence. This paper addresses the perceived impacts of wildlife on agropastoral food production in the Tarangire ecosystem of northern Tanzania. It is based on sixteen months of collaborative ethnographic fieldwork with agropastoral Maasai communities (2019-2020; 2022; 2023), 240 semi-structured interviews, and a household survey (n = 1076). People felt that caterpillars, elephants, and zebras had the most significant effects on crop production, while hyenas were responsible for the bulk of livestock depredation by carnivores. These social costs of wildlife merit further attention from conservation policy makers.