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Baghy K, Ladányi A, Reszegi A, Kovalszky I. Insights into the Tumor Microenvironment-Components, Functions and Therapeutics. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:17536. [PMID: 38139365 PMCID: PMC10743805 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242417536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 11/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Similarly to our healthy organs, the tumor tissue also constitutes an ecosystem. This implies that stromal cells acquire an altered phenotype in tandem with tumor cells, thereby promoting tumor survival. Cancer cells are fueled by abnormal blood vessels, allowing them to develop and proliferate. Tumor-associated fibroblasts adapt their cytokine and chemokine production to the needs of tumor cells and alter the peritumoral stroma by generating more collagen, thereby stiffening the matrix; these processes promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition and tumor cell invasion. Chronic inflammation and the mobilization of pro-tumorigenic inflammatory cells further facilitate tumor expansion. All of these events can impede the effective administration of tumor treatment; so, the successful inhibition of tumorous matrix remodeling could further enhance the success of antitumor therapy. Over the last decade, significant progress has been made with the introduction of novel immunotherapy that targets the inhibitory mechanisms of T cell activation. However, extensive research is also being conducted on the stromal components and other cell types of the tumor microenvironment (TME) that may serve as potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kornélia Baghy
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Cancer Research, Semmelweis University, 1085 Budapest, Hungary;
| | - Andrea Ladányi
- Department of Surgical and Molecular Pathology and the National Tumor Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Oncology, 1122 Budapest, Hungary;
| | - Andrea Reszegi
- Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA;
- Department of Pathology, Forensic and Insurance Medicine, Semmelweis University, 1091 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ilona Kovalszky
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Cancer Research, Semmelweis University, 1085 Budapest, Hungary;
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2
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Santollani L, Wittrup KD. Spatiotemporally programming cytokine immunotherapies through protein engineering. Immunol Rev 2023; 320:10-28. [PMID: 37409481 DOI: 10.1111/imr.13234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Cytokines have long been considered promising cancer immunotherapy agents due to their endogenous role in activating and proliferating lymphocytes. However, since the initial FDA approvals of Interleukin-2 (IL-2) and Interferon-ɑ (IFNɑ) for oncology over 30 years ago, cytokines have achieved little success in the clinic due to narrow therapeutic windows and dose-limiting toxicities. This is attributable to the discrepancy between the localized, regulated manner in which cytokines are deployed endogenously versus the systemic, untargeted administration used to date in most exogenous cytokine therapies. Furthermore, cytokines' ability to stimulate multiple cell types, often with paradoxical effects, may present significant challenges for their translation into effective therapies. Recently, protein engineering has emerged as a tool to address the shortcomings of first-generation cytokine therapies. In this perspective, we contextualize cytokine engineering strategies such as partial agonism, conditional activation and intratumoral retention through the lens of spatiotemporal regulation. By controlling the time, place, specificity, and duration of cytokine signaling, protein engineering can allow exogenous cytokine therapies to more closely approach their endogenous exposure profile, ultimately moving us closer to unlocking their full therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciano Santollani
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - K Dane Wittrup
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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3
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Sajeev A, Hegde M, Daimary UD, Kumar A, Girisa S, Sethi G, Kunnumakkara AB. Modulation of diverse oncogenic signaling pathways by oroxylin A: An important strategy for both cancer prevention and treatment. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2022; 105:154369. [PMID: 35985182 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2022.154369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Regardless of major advances in diagnosis, prevention and treatment strategies, cancer is still a foreboding cause due to factors like chemoresistance, radioresistance, adverse side effects and cancer recurrence. Therefore, continuous development of unconventional approaches is a prerequisite to overcome foregoing glitches. Natural products have found their way into treatment of serious health conditions, including cancer since ancient times. The compound oroxylin A (OA) is one among those with enormous potential against different malignancies. It is a flavonoid obtained from the several plants such as Oroxylum indicum, Scutellaria baicalensis and S. lateriflora, Anchietea pyrifolia, and Aster himalaicus. PURPOSE The main purpose of this study is to comprehensively elucidate the anticancerous effects of OA against various malignancies and unravel their chemosensitization and radiosensitization potential. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies of OA have also been investigated. METHOD The literature on antineoplastic effects of OA was searched in PubMed and Scopus, including in vitro and in vivo studies and is summarized based on a systematic review protocol prepared according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. The term "oroxylin A" was used in combination with "cancer" and all the title, abstracts and keywords appeared were considered. RESULTS In Scopus, a total of 157 articles appeared out of which 103 articles that did not meet the eligibility criteria were eliminated and 54 were critically evaluated. In PubMed, from the 85 results obtained, 26 articles were eliminated and 59 were included in the preparation of this review. Mounting number of studies have illustrated the anticancer effects of OA, and its mechanism of action. CONCLUSION OA is a promising natural flavonoid possessing wide range of pleiotropic properties and is a potential anticancer agent. It has a great potential in the treatment of multiple cancers including brain, breast, cervical, colon, esophageal, gall bladder, gastric, hematological, liver, lung, oral, ovarian, pancreatic and skin. However, lack of pharmacokinetic studies, toxicity assessments, and dose standardization studies and adverse effects limit the optimization of this compound as a therapeutic agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjana Sajeev
- Cancer Biology Laboratory and DBT-AIST International Center for Translational and Environmental Research (DAICENTER), Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Mangala Hegde
- Cancer Biology Laboratory and DBT-AIST International Center for Translational and Environmental Research (DAICENTER), Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Uzini Devi Daimary
- Cancer Biology Laboratory and DBT-AIST International Center for Translational and Environmental Research (DAICENTER), Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Aviral Kumar
- Cancer Biology Laboratory and DBT-AIST International Center for Translational and Environmental Research (DAICENTER), Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Sosmitha Girisa
- Cancer Biology Laboratory and DBT-AIST International Center for Translational and Environmental Research (DAICENTER), Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Gautam Sethi
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117600, Singapore.
| | - Ajaikumar B Kunnumakkara
- Cancer Biology Laboratory and DBT-AIST International Center for Translational and Environmental Research (DAICENTER), Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India.
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4
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Seren S, Joly JP, Voisin P, Bouchaud V, Audran G, Marque SRA, Mellet P. Neutrophil Elastase-Activatable Prodrugs Based on an Alkoxyamine Platform to Deliver Alkyl Radicals Cytotoxic to Tumor Cells. J Med Chem 2022; 65:9253-9266. [PMID: 35764297 PMCID: PMC9289877 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c00455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Current chemotherapies
suffer low specificity and sometimes drug
resistance. Neutrophil elastase activity in cancer is associated with
poor prognosis and metastasis settlement. More generally, tumors harbor
various and persistent protease activities unseen in healthy tissues.
In an attempt to be more specific, we designed prodrugs that are activatable
by neutrophil elastase. Upon activation, these alkoxyamine-based drugs
release cytotoxic alkyl radicals that act randomly to prevent drug
resistance. As a result, U87 glioblastoma cells displayed high level
caspase 3/7 activation during the first hour of exposure in the presence
of human neutrophil elastase and the prodrug in vitro. The apoptosis
process and cell death occurred between 24 and 48 h after exposure
with a half lethal concentration of 150 μM. These prodrugs are
versatile and easy to synthetize and can be adapted to many enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seda Seren
- Magnetic Resonance of Biological Systems, UMR 5536 CNRS-University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux 33076, France
| | - Jean-Patrick Joly
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS UMR 7273, ICR, Case 551, Marseille 13397, France
| | - Pierre Voisin
- Magnetic Resonance of Biological Systems, UMR 5536 CNRS-University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux 33076, France
| | - Véronique Bouchaud
- Magnetic Resonance of Biological Systems, UMR 5536 CNRS-University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux 33076, France
| | - Gérard Audran
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS UMR 7273, ICR, Case 551, Marseille 13397, France
| | - Sylvain R A Marque
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS UMR 7273, ICR, Case 551, Marseille 13397, France
| | - Philippe Mellet
- Magnetic Resonance of Biological Systems, UMR 5536 CNRS-University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux 33076, France.,INSERM, Bordeaux 33000, France
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Metrangolo V, Ploug M, Engelholm LH. The Urokinase Receptor (uPAR) as a "Trojan Horse" in Targeted Cancer Therapy: Challenges and Opportunities. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13215376. [PMID: 34771541 PMCID: PMC8582577 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13215376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Discovered more than three decades ago, the urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR) has now firmly established itself as a versatile molecular target holding promise for the treatment of aggressive malignancies. The copious abundance of uPAR in virtually all human cancerous tissues versus their healthy counterparts has fostered a gradual shift in the therapeutic landscape targeting this receptor from function inhibition to cytotoxic approaches to selectively eradicate the uPAR-expressing cells by delivering a targeted cytotoxic insult. Multiple avenues are being explored in a preclinical setting, including the more innovative immune- or stroma targeting therapies. This review discusses the current state of these strategies, their potentialities, and challenges, along with future directions in the field of uPAR targeting. Abstract One of the largest challenges to the implementation of precision oncology is identifying and validating selective tumor-driving targets to enhance the therapeutic efficacy while limiting off-target toxicity. In this context, the urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR) has progressively emerged as a promising therapeutic target in the management of aggressive malignancies. By focalizing the plasminogen activation cascade and subsequent extracellular proteolysis on the cell surface of migrating cells, uPAR endows malignant cells with a high proteolytic and migratory potential to dissolve the restraining extracellular matrix (ECM) barriers and metastasize to distant sites. uPAR is also assumed to choreograph multiple other neoplastic stages via a complex molecular interplay with distinct cancer-associated signaling pathways. Accordingly, high uPAR expression is observed in virtually all human cancers and is frequently associated with poor patient prognosis and survival. The promising therapeutic potential unveiled by the pleiotropic nature of this receptor has prompted the development of distinct targeted intervention strategies. The present review will focus on recently emerged cytotoxic approaches emphasizing the novel technologies and related limits hindering their application in the clinical setting. Finally, future research directions and emerging opportunities in the field of uPAR targeting are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Metrangolo
- The Finsen Laboratory, Rigshospitalet, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark; (V.M.); (M.P.)
- Biotech Research & Innovation Centre (BRIC), Department of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Michael Ploug
- The Finsen Laboratory, Rigshospitalet, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark; (V.M.); (M.P.)
- Biotech Research & Innovation Centre (BRIC), Department of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lars H. Engelholm
- The Finsen Laboratory, Rigshospitalet, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark; (V.M.); (M.P.)
- Biotech Research & Innovation Centre (BRIC), Department of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +45-31-43-20-77
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6
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Aloysius H, Hu L. Synthesis and evaluation of new peptide-linked doxorubicin conjugates as prodrugs activated by prostate-specific antigen. Med Chem Res 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00044-020-02573-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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7
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Luo Y, Yang H, Zhou YF, Hu B. Dual and multi-targeted nanoparticles for site-specific brain drug delivery. J Control Release 2019; 317:195-215. [PMID: 31794799 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2019.11.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, nanomedicines have emerged as a promising method for central nervous system drug delivery, enabling the drugs to overcome the blood-brain barrier and accumulate preferentially in the brain. Despite the current success of brain-targeted nanomedicines, limitations still exist in terms of the targeting specificity. Based on the molecular mechanism, the exact cell populations and subcellular organelles where the injury occurs and the drugs take effect have been increasingly accepted as a more specific target for the next generation of nanomedicines. Dual and multi-targeted nanoparticles integrate different targeting functionalities and have provided a paradigm for precisely delivering the drug to the pathological site inside the brain. The targeting process often involves the sequential or synchronized navigation of the targeting moieties, which allows highly controlled drug delivery compared to conventional targeting strategies. Herein, we focus on the up-to-date design of pathological site-specific nanoparticles for brain drug delivery, highlighting the dual and multi-targeting strategies that were employed and their impact on improving targeting specificity and therapeutic effects. Furthermore, the background discussion of the basic properties of a brain-targeted nanoparticle and the common lesion features classified by neurological pathology are systematically summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Luo
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Hang Yang
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Yi-Fan Zhou
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China.
| | - Bo Hu
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China.
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8
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The Rebirth of Matrix Metalloproteinase Inhibitors: Moving Beyond the Dogma. Cells 2019; 8:cells8090984. [PMID: 31461880 PMCID: PMC6769477 DOI: 10.3390/cells8090984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Revised: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The pursuit of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitors began in earnest over three decades ago. Initial clinical trials were disappointing, resulting in a negative view of MMPs as therapeutic targets. As a better understanding of MMP biology and inhibitor pharmacokinetic properties emerged, it became clear that initial MMP inhibitor clinical trials were held prematurely. Further complicating matters were problematic conclusions drawn from animal model studies. The most recent generation of MMP inhibitors have desirable selectivities and improved pharmacokinetics, resulting in improved toxicity profiles. Application of selective MMP inhibitors led to the conclusion that MMP-2, MMP-9, MMP-13, and MT1-MMP are not involved in musculoskeletal syndrome, a common side effect observed with broad spectrum MMP inhibitors. Specific activities within a single MMP can now be inhibited. Better definition of the roles of MMPs in immunological responses and inflammation will help inform clinic trials, and multiple studies indicate that modulating MMP activity can improve immunotherapy. There is a U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved MMP inhibitor for periodontal disease, and several MMP inhibitors are in clinic trials, targeting a variety of maladies including gastric cancer, diabetic foot ulcers, and multiple sclerosis. It is clearly time to move on from the dogma of viewing MMP inhibition as intractable.
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9
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Transporter and protease mediated delivery of platinum complexes for precision oncology. J Biol Inorg Chem 2019; 24:457-466. [DOI: 10.1007/s00775-019-01660-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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10
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Sun K, Xu H, Hilfinger JL, Lee KD, Provoda CJ, Sabit H, Amidon GL. Improved Protease-Targeting and Biopharmaceutical Properties of Novel Prodrugs of Ganciclovir. Mol Pharm 2018; 15:410-419. [PMID: 29251944 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.7b00792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The prodrug strategy has been frequently employed as a chemical approach for overcoming the disadvantages of existing parent drugs. In this report, we synthesized four monoester prodrugs of ganciclovir, an anticytomegalovirus drug, and demonstrated their potential advantages in protease-targeted activation and biopharmaceutical profiles over the parent compound. We demonstrated that these four prodrugs of ganciclovir, i.e., N-benzyloxycarbonyl-(L)-alanine-ganciclovir (CbzAlaGCV), N-benzyloxycarbonyl-(α,l)-aminobutyric acid-ganciclovir (CbzAbuGCV), N-acetyl-(l)-phenylalanine-(l)-alanine-ganciclovir (AcPheAlaGCV), and N-acetyl-(l)-phenylalanine-(α,l)-aminobutyric acid-ganciclovir (AcPheAbuGCV), are hydrolytically activated by the protease of human cytomegalovirus (hCMV), a serine protease that possesses intrinsic esterase activities. CbzAlaGCV and AcPheAlaGCV were found to be activated at a higher rate by the hCMV protease than CbzAbuGCV and AcPheAbuGCV. These ganciclovir prodrugs could potentially be targeted to selective activation by the hCMV protease which is only present at the viral infection sites, thereby achieving higher efficacy and lower systemic toxicity. The tissue stability, cellular uptake, and trans-epithelial transport of these ganciclovir prodrugs were also characterized. The N-acetylated dipeptide prodrugs of ganciclovir were found to be generally more stable than Cbz-amino acid prodrugs in various tissue matrices. Among the four prodrug candidates, AcPheAbuGCV was the most stable in human cell homogenates, plasma, and pooled liver microsomes. AcPheAbuGCV also possessed a superior cellular uptake profile and permeability across epithelial cell monolayers. Since the targeting and selective activation of a prodrug is determined by not only its rate of hydrolysis catalyzed by the hCMV protease target but also its biopharmaceutical properties, i.e., oral absorption and systemic availability, AcPheAbuGCV is considered the best overall candidate among the four ganciclovir prodrugs for further research and development for treatment of hCMV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kefeng Sun
- Shire Pharmaceuticals Human Genetic Therapies, Inc. , 300 Shire Way, Lexington, Massachusetts 02421-2101, United States
| | - Hao Xu
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Michigan , 428 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1065, United States
| | - John L Hilfinger
- TSRL, Inc. , 540 Avis Drive, Suite A, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48108, United States
| | - Kyung-Dall Lee
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Michigan , 428 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1065, United States
| | - Chester J Provoda
- American Society for Clinical Investigation , 2015 Manchester Road, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104, United States
| | - Hairat Sabit
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration , 10903 New Hampshire Ave, Silver Spring, Maryland 20903, United States
| | - Gordon L Amidon
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Michigan , 428 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1065, United States
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11
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Mohanty S, Chen Z, Li K, Morais GR, Klockow J, Yerneni K, Pisani L, Chin FT, Mitra S, Cheshier S, Chang E, Gambhir SS, Rao J, Loadman PM, Falconer RA, Daldrup-Link HE. A Novel Theranostic Strategy for MMP-14-Expressing Glioblastomas Impacts Survival. Mol Cancer Ther 2017; 16:1909-1921. [PMID: 28659432 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-17-0022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2017] [Revised: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) has a dismal prognosis. Evidence from preclinical tumor models and human trials indicates the role of GBM-initiating cells (GIC) in GBM drug resistance. Here, we propose a new treatment option with tumor enzyme-activatable, combined therapeutic and diagnostic (theranostic) nanoparticles, which caused specific toxicity against GBM tumor cells and GICs. The theranostic cross-linked iron oxide nanoparticles (CLIO) were conjugated to a highly potent vascular disrupting agent (ICT) and secured with a matrix-metalloproteinase (MMP-14) cleavable peptide. Treatment with CLIO-ICT disrupted tumor vasculature of MMP-14-expressing GBM, induced GIC apoptosis, and significantly impaired tumor growth. In addition, the iron core of CLIO-ICT enabled in vivo drug tracking with MR imaging. Treatment with CLIO-ICT plus temozolomide achieved tumor remission and significantly increased survival of human GBM-bearing mice by more than 2-fold compared with treatment with temozolomide alone. Thus, we present a novel therapeutic strategy with significant impact on survival and great potential for clinical translation. Mol Cancer Ther; 16(9); 1909-21. ©2017 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suchismita Mohanty
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Zixin Chen
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Kai Li
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Goreti Ribeiro Morais
- Institute of Cancer Therapeutics, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, United Kingdom
| | - Jessica Klockow
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Ketan Yerneni
- Department of Biology, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York
| | - Laura Pisani
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Frederick T Chin
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Siddharta Mitra
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine and Division of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Lucile Packard Children's Hospital, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Samuel Cheshier
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine and Division of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Lucile Packard Children's Hospital, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | | | - Sanjiv Sam Gambhir
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University, Stanford, California
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Jianghong Rao
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Paul M Loadman
- Institute of Cancer Therapeutics, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, United Kingdom
| | - Robert A Falconer
- Institute of Cancer Therapeutics, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, United Kingdom
| | - Heike E Daldrup-Link
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Stanford University, Stanford, California.
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12
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Jain M, Harburn JJ, Gill JH, Loadman PM, Falconer RA, Mooney CA, Cobb SL, Berry DJ. Rationalized Computer-Aided Design of Matrix-Metalloprotease-Selective Prodrugs. J Med Chem 2017; 60:4496-4502. [PMID: 28471664 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.6b01472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are central to cancer development and metastasis. They are highly active in the tumor environment and absent or inactive in normal tissues; therefore they represent viable targets for cancer drug discovery. In this study we evaluated in silico docking to develop MMP-subtype-selective tumor-activated prodrugs. Proof of principle for this therapeutic approach was demonstrated in vitro against an aggressive human glioma model, with involvement of MMPs confirmed using pharmacological inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohit Jain
- School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Health, Durham University , Queen's Campus, Stockton on Tees, TS17 6BH, U.K
| | - J Jonathan Harburn
- School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Health, Durham University , Queen's Campus, Stockton on Tees, TS17 6BH, U.K
| | - Jason H Gill
- School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Health, Durham University , Queen's Campus, Stockton on Tees, TS17 6BH, U.K
| | - Paul M Loadman
- Institute of Cancer Therapeutics, ICT Building, University of Bradford , Bradford, BD7 1DP, U.K
| | - Robert A Falconer
- Institute of Cancer Therapeutics, ICT Building, University of Bradford , Bradford, BD7 1DP, U.K
| | - Caitlin A Mooney
- Department of Chemistry, Durham University , Lower Mountjoy, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, U.K
| | - Steven L Cobb
- Department of Chemistry, Durham University , Lower Mountjoy, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, U.K
| | - David J Berry
- School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Health, Durham University , Queen's Campus, Stockton on Tees, TS17 6BH, U.K
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13
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Braun GB, Sugahara KN, Yu OM, Kotamraju VR, Mölder T, Lowy AM, Ruoslahti E, Teesalu T. Urokinase-controlled tumor penetrating peptide. J Control Release 2016; 232:188-95. [PMID: 27106816 PMCID: PMC5359125 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Revised: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Tumor penetrating peptides contain a cryptic (R/K)XX(R/K) CendR element that must be C-terminally exposed to trigger neuropilin-1 (NRP-1) binding, cellular internalization and malignant tissue penetration. The specific proteases that are involved in processing of tumor penetrating peptides identified using phage display are not known. Here we design de novo a tumor-penetrating peptide based on consensus cleavage motif of urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA). We expressed the peptide, uCendR (RPARSGR↓SAGGSVA, ↓ shows cleavage site), on phage or coated it onto silver nanoparticles and showed that it is cleaved by uPA, and that the cleavage triggers binding to recombinant NRP-1 and to NPR-1-expressing cells. Upon systemic administration to mice bearing uPA-overexpressing breast tumors, FAM-labeled uCendR peptide and uCendR-coated nanoparticles preferentially accumulated in tumor tissue. We also show that uCendR phage internalization into cultured cancer cells and its penetration in explants of murine tumors and clinical tumor explants can be potentiated by combining the uCendR peptide with tumor-homing module, CRGDC. Our work demonstrates the feasibility of designing tumor-penetrating peptides that are activated by a specific tumor protease. As upregulation of protease expression is one of the hallmarks of cancer, and numerous tumor proteases have substrate specificities compatible with proteolytic unmasking of cryptic CendR motifs, the strategy described here may provide a generic approach for designing proteolytically-actuated peptides for tumor-penetrative payload delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary B Braun
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, Cancer Research Center, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Kazuki N Sugahara
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, Cancer Research Center, La Jolla, CA, USA; Department of Surgery, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY, USA
| | - Olivia M Yu
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, Cancer Research Center, La Jolla, CA, USA; Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, Department of Pharmacology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, USA
| | | | - Tarmo Mölder
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Andrew M Lowy
- Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Erkki Ruoslahti
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, Cancer Research Center, La Jolla, CA, USA; Center for Nanomedicine, Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Tambet Teesalu
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, Cancer Research Center, La Jolla, CA, USA; Center for Nanomedicine, Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA; Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.
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14
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Aloysius H, Hu L. Improving the Specificity of the Prostate-Specific Antigen Substrate Glutaryl-Hyp-Ala-Ser-Chg-Gln as a Promoiety. Chem Biol Drug Des 2015; 86:837-48. [DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.12559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Herve Aloysius
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry; Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers; The State University of New Jersey; Piscataway NJ 08854 USA
| | - Longqin Hu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry; Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers; The State University of New Jersey; Piscataway NJ 08854 USA
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Shanxi Medical University; Taiyuan 030001 China
- The Cancer Institute of New Jersey; New Brunswick NJ 08901 USA
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15
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Abstract
Due to the propensity of relapse and resistance with prolonged androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), there is a growing interest in developing non-hormonal therapeutic approaches as alternative treatment modalities for hormone refractory prostate cancer (HRPC). Although the standard treatment for HRPC consists of a combination of ADT with taxanes and anthracyclines, the clinical use of chemotherapeutics is limited by systemic toxicity stemming from nondiscriminatory drug exposure to normal tissues. In order to improve the tumor selectivity of chemotherapeutics, various targeted prodrug approaches have been explored. Antibody-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (ADEPT) and gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (GDEPT) strategies leverage tumor-specific antigens and transcription factors for the specific delivery of cytotoxic anticancer agents using various prodrug-activating enzymes. In prostate cancer, overexpression of tumor-specific proteases such as prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) is being exploited for selective activation of anticancer prodrugs designed to be activated through proteolysis by these prostate cancer-specific enzymes. PSMA- and PSA-activated prodrugs typically comprise an engineered high-specificity protease peptide substrate coupled to a potent cytotoxic agent via a linker for rapid release of cytotoxic species in the vicinity of prostate cancer cells following proteolytic cleavage. Over the past two decades, various such prodrugs have been developed and they were effective at inhibiting prostate tumor growth in rodent models; several of these prodrug approaches have been advanced to clinical trials and may be developed into effective therapies for HRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herve Aloysius
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, 08854
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16
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Moncelet D, Voisin P, Koonjoo N, Bouchaud V, Massot P, Parzy E, Audran G, Franconi JM, Thiaudière E, Marque SRA, Brémond P, Mellet P. Alkoxyamines: Toward a New Family of Theranostic Agents against Cancer. Mol Pharm 2014; 11:2412-9. [DOI: 10.1021/mp5001394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Damien Moncelet
- CRMSB,
CNRS-UMR-5536, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Case
93, 33076 Bordeaux
Cedex, France
| | - Pierre Voisin
- CRMSB,
CNRS-UMR-5536, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Case
93, 33076 Bordeaux
Cedex, France
| | - Neha Koonjoo
- CRMSB,
CNRS-UMR-5536, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Case
93, 33076 Bordeaux
Cedex, France
| | - Véronique Bouchaud
- CRMSB,
CNRS-UMR-5536, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Case
93, 33076 Bordeaux
Cedex, France
| | - Philippe Massot
- CRMSB,
CNRS-UMR-5536, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Case
93, 33076 Bordeaux
Cedex, France
| | - Elodie Parzy
- CRMSB,
CNRS-UMR-5536, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Case
93, 33076 Bordeaux
Cedex, France
| | - Gérard Audran
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, ICR UMR
7273, 13397, Marseille, France
| | - Jean-Michel Franconi
- CRMSB,
CNRS-UMR-5536, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Case
93, 33076 Bordeaux
Cedex, France
| | - Eric Thiaudière
- CRMSB,
CNRS-UMR-5536, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Case
93, 33076 Bordeaux
Cedex, France
| | | | - Paul Brémond
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, ICR UMR
7273, 13397, Marseille, France
| | - Philippe Mellet
- CRMSB,
CNRS-UMR-5536, Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Case
93, 33076 Bordeaux
Cedex, France
- INSERM, 146 rue Léo Saignat, Case
93, 33076 Bordeaux
Cedex, France
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17
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Gill JH, Loadman PM, Shnyder SD, Cooper P, Atkinson JM, Ribeiro Morais G, Patterson LH, Falconer RA. Tumor-targeted prodrug ICT2588 demonstrates therapeutic activity against solid tumors and reduced potential for cardiovascular toxicity. Mol Pharm 2014; 11:1294-300. [PMID: 24641451 DOI: 10.1021/mp400760b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Development of therapeutic strategies for tumor-selective delivery of therapeutics through exploitation of the proteolytic tumor phenotype has significant scope for improvement of cancer treatment. ICT2588 is a peptide-conjugated prodrug of the vascular disrupting agent (VDA) azademethylcolchicine developed to be selectively hydrolyzed by matrix metalloproteinase-14 (MMP-14) within the tumor. In this report, we extend our previous proof-of-concept studies and demonstrate the therapeutic potential of this agent against models of human colorectal, lung, breast, and prostate cancer. In all tumor types, ICT2588 was superior to azademethylcolchicine and was greater or comparable to standard clinically used agents for the respective tumor type. Prodrug activation in clinical human lung tumor homogenates relative to stability in human plasma and liver was observed, supporting clinical translation potential. A major limiting factor to the clinical value of VDAs is their inherent cardiovascular toxicity. No increase in plasma von Willebrand factor (vWF) levels, an indicator of systemic vascular dysfunction and acute cardiovascular toxicity, was detected with ICT2588, thereby supporting the tumor-selective activation and reduced potential of ICT2588 to cause cardiovascular toxicity. Our findings reinforce the improved therapeutic index and tumor-selective approach offered by ICT2588 and this nanotherapeutic approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason H Gill
- Institute of Cancer Therapeutics, School of Life Sciences, University of Bradford , Bradford, Yorkshire BD7 1DP, United Kingdom
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18
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Tang L, Duan R, Zhong YJ, Firestone RA, Hong YP, Li JG, Xin YC, Wu HL, Li Y. Synthesis, identification and in vivo studies of tumor-targeting agent peptide doxorubicin (PDOX) to treat peritoneal carcinomatosis of gastric cancer with similar efficacy but reduced toxicity. Mol Cancer 2014; 13:44. [PMID: 24588871 PMCID: PMC3984748 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-13-44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2013] [Accepted: 02/24/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background This work aimed to synthesize a cathepsin B (CTSB)-cleavable tumor-targeting prodrug peptide doxorubicin (PDOX) and study the in vivo efficacy and toxicities on an animal model of gastric peritoneal carcinomatosis (PC). Methods PDOX was synthesized using doxorubicin (DOX) attaching to a CTSB-cleavable dipeptide Ac-Phe-Lys and a para-amino-benzyloxycarbonyl (PABC) spacer. PC model was established by injecting VX2 tumor cells into the gastric sub-mucosa of 40 rabbits, which then were randomized into 4 groups: the Control (n = 10) without treatment, the HIPEC (n = 10) receiving cytoreductive surgery (CRS) plus hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC), the PDOX (n = 10) and the DOX (n = 10) receiving systemic chemotherapy with PDOX 50.0 mg/kg or DOX 5.0 mg/kg, respectively, after CRS + HIPEC. Results The median overall survivals (OS) were 23.0 d (95% CI: 19.9 d - 26.1 d) in the Control, 41.0 d (36.9 d - 45.1 d) in the HIPEC, 65.0 d (44.1 d - 71.9 d) in the PDOX, and 58.0 d (39.6 d - 54.4 d) in the DOX. Compared with the Control, the OS was extended by 70% in the HIPEC (p < 0.001) and further extended by 40% in the DOX (p = 0.029) and by 58% in the PDOX (p = 0.021), and the PC severity was decreased in the HIPEC and further decreased in the PDOX and DOX. Animals receiving DOX treatment showed hematological toxicities with marked reduction of white blood cells and platelets, as well as cardiac toxicities with significant increases in creatine kinase mb isoenzyme, evident myocardium coagulation necrosis, significant nuclear degeneration, peri-nucleus mitochondria deletion, mitochondria-pyknosis, and abnormal intercalated discs. But these toxicities were not evident in the PDOX. Conclusions PDOX is a newly synthesized tumor-targeting prodrug of DOX. Compared with DOX, PDOX has similar efficacy but reduced hematological and cardiac toxicities in treating rabbit model of gastric PC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Yan Li
- Department of Oncology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Biological Behaviors & Hubei Cancer Clinical Study Center, No 169, Donghu Road, Wuhan 430071, China.
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19
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Ansari C, Tikhomirov GA, Hong SH, Falconer RA, Loadman PM, Gill JH, Castaneda R, Hazard FK, Tong L, Lenkov OD, Felsher DW, Rao J, Daldrup-Link HE. Development of novel tumor-targeted theranostic nanoparticles activated by membrane-type matrix metalloproteinases for combined cancer magnetic resonance imaging and therapy. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2014; 10:566-75, 417. [PMID: 24038954 PMCID: PMC3946335 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201301456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2013] [Revised: 07/03/2013] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
A major drawback with current cancer therapy is the prevalence of unrequired dose-limiting toxicity to non-cancerous tissues and organs, which is further compounded by a limited ability to rapidly and easily monitor drug delivery, pharmacodynamics and therapeutic response. In this report, the design and characterization of novel multifunctional "theranostic" nanoparticles (TNPs) is described for enzyme-specific drug activation at tumor sites and simultaneous in vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of drug delivery. TNPs are synthesized by conjugation of FDA-approved iron oxide nanoparticles ferumoxytol to an MMP-activatable peptide conjugate of azademethylcolchicine (ICT), creating CLIO-ICTs (TNPs). Significant cell death is observed in TNP-treated MMP-14 positive MMTV-PyMT breast cancer cells in vitro, but not MMP-14 negative fibroblasts or cells treated with ferumoxytol alone. Intravenous administration of TNPs to MMTV-PyMT tumor-bearing mice and subsequent MRI demonstrates significant tumor selective accumulation of the TNP, an observation confirmed by histopathology. Treatment with CLIO-ICTs induces a significant antitumor effect and tumor necrosis, a response not observed with ferumoxytol. Furthermore, no toxicity or cell death is observed in normal tissues following treatment with CLIO-ICTs, ICT, or ferumoxytol. These findings demonstrate proof of concept for a new nanotemplate that integrates tumor specificity, drug delivery and in vivo imaging into a single TNP entity through attachment of enzyme-activated prodrugs onto magnetic nanoparticles. This novel approach holds the potential to significantly improve targeted cancer therapies, and ultimately enable personalized therapy regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celina Ansari
- Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford and Department of Radiology, Stanford University, 725 Welch Road, Rm 1665, Stanford, CA, 94305-5614, USA
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20
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Jiang Y, Hu L. Peptide conjugates of 4-aminocyclophosphamide as prodrugs of phosphoramide mustard for selective activation by prostate-specific antigen (PSA). Bioorg Med Chem 2013; 21:7507-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2013.09.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2013] [Revised: 09/08/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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21
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Fournier-Dit-Chabert J, Vinader V, Santos AR, Redondo-Horcajo M, Dreneau A, Basak R, Cosentino L, Marston G, Abdel-Rahman H, Loadman PM, Shnyder SD, Díaz JF, Barasoain I, Falconer RA, Pors K. Synthesis and biological evaluation of colchicine C-ring analogues tethered with aliphatic linkers suitable for prodrug derivatisation. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 22:7693-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.09.104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2012] [Revised: 09/25/2012] [Accepted: 09/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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22
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Sutherland M, Gill JH, Loadman PM, Laye JP, Sheldrake HM, Illingworth NA, Alandas MN, Cooper PA, Searcey M, Pors K, Shnyder SD, Patterson LH. Antitumor Activity of a Duocarmycin Analogue Rationalized to Be Metabolically Activated by Cytochrome P450 1A1 in Human Transitional Cell Carcinoma of the Bladder. Mol Cancer Ther 2012; 12:27-37. [DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-12-0405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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23
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Yamamoto N, Bryce NS, Metzler-Nolte N, Hambley TW. Effects of enzymatic activation on the distribution of fluorescently tagged MMP-2 cleavable peptides in cancer cells and spheroids. Bioconjug Chem 2012; 23:1110-8. [PMID: 22621307 DOI: 10.1021/bc200561n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A peptide tagged at the N-terminus with FITC, at the C-terminus with coumarin-343, and incorporating a sequence selectively cleaved by the matrix metalloproteinase, MMP-2, was synthesized to investigate the effect of peptide cleavage on both cellular accumulation and distribution in cancer cell spheroids. The peptide was shown by HPLC and mass spectroscopy to be cleaved in the presence of MMP-2 at the expected site. The cellular and spheroid distribution of each of the fragments was monitored using confocal fluorescence microscopy. The intact peptide had minimal accumulation in 2D-cultured DLD-1 cells that do not express MMP-2 in these conditions. Following addition of serum containing MMP-2 to the cell media, the cleaved C-terminal fragment was seen to enter the cells, while the N-terminal fragment remained extracellular, evidently blocked by the presence of the FITC group. 3D culture of DLD-1 cells as spheroids resulted in measurable MMP-2 activity. Different distribution patterns of the two fluorophores were seen in spheroids treated with the intact peptide, consistent with cleavage occurring. Different rates of accumulation of each of the fragments were observed within the spheroid over time, which is attributed to the extent of accumulation and sequestration of the fragments by cells residing in the periphery of the spheroids. The outcomes suggest that tumor-associated enzymes have the potential to modify the distribution of peptides and peptide fragments in solid tumors by modifying the cellular uptake of those peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natsuho Yamamoto
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney , NSW 2006, Australia
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24
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Site-specific targeting of antibody activity in vivo mediated by disease-associated proteases. J Control Release 2012; 161:804-12. [PMID: 22634092 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2012.05.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2012] [Revised: 05/12/2012] [Accepted: 05/17/2012] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
As a general strategy to selectively target antibody activity in vivo, a molecular architecture was designed to render binding activity dependent upon proteases in disease tissues. A protease-activated antibody (pro-antibody) targeting vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), a marker of atherosclerotic plaques, was constructed by tethering a binding site-masking peptide to the antibody via a matrix metalloprotease (MMP) susceptible linker. Pro-antibody activation in vitro by MMP-1 yielded a 200-fold increase in binding affinity and restored anti-VCAM-1 binding in tissue sections from ApoE⁻/⁻ mice ex vivo. The pro-antibody was efficiently activated by native proteases in aorta tissue extracts from ApoE⁻/⁻, but not from normal mice, and accumulated in aortic plaques in vivo with enhanced selectivity when compared to the unmodified antibody. Pro-antibody accumulation in aortic plaques was MMP-dependent, and significantly inhibited by a broad-spectrum MMP inhibitor. These results demonstrate that the activity of disease-associated proteases can be exploited to site-specifically target antibody activity in vivo.
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25
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de Graaf AJ, Mastrobattista E, Vermonden T, van Nostrum CF, Rijkers DTS, Liskamp RMJ, Hennink WE. Thermosensitive Peptide-Hybrid ABC Block Copolymers Obtained by ATRP: Synthesis, Self-Assembly, and Enzymatic Degradation. Macromolecules 2012. [DOI: 10.1021/ma2024667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Albert J. de Graaf
- Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Pharmaceutics, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.082, 3508TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Enrico Mastrobattista
- Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Pharmaceutics, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.082, 3508TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Tina Vermonden
- Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Pharmaceutics, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.082, 3508TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Cornelus F. van Nostrum
- Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Pharmaceutics, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.082, 3508TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Dirk T. S. Rijkers
- Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.082, 3508TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Rob M. J. Liskamp
- Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.082, 3508TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Wim E. Hennink
- Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Pharmaceutics, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.082, 3508TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
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26
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Siveen KS, Kuttan G. Effect ofAerva lanataon cell-mediated immune responses and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte generation in normal and tumor-bearing mice. J Immunotoxicol 2011; 9:25-33. [DOI: 10.3109/1547691x.2011.609191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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27
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Shao LH, Liu SP, Hou JX, Zhang YH, Peng CW, Zhong YJ, Liu X, Liu XL, Hong YP, Firestone RA, Li Y. Cathepsin B cleavable novel prodrug Ac-Phe-Lys-PABC-ADM enhances efficacy at reduced toxicity in treating gastric cancer peritoneal carcinomatosis: an experimental study. Cancer 2011; 118:2986-96. [PMID: 22006342 DOI: 10.1002/cncr.26596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2011] [Revised: 08/16/2011] [Accepted: 09/07/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Doxorubicin (Adriamycin) is effective in gastric cancer treatment, but with severe dose-dependent toxicities. A novel prodrug of doxorubicin (Ac-Phe-Lys-PABC-ADM) is designed to deliver free doxorubicin relying on cathepsin B and reduce side effects. The authors examined the antitumor effect and toxicities of Ac-Phe-Lys-PABC-ADM against gastric cancer peritoneal carcinomatosis. METHODS SGC-7901 gastric cancer cell line was used for the study. The in vitro study investigated the effects of doxorubicin and Ac-Phe-Lys-PABC-ADM on cell growth dynamics and cell cycle. The in vivo study investigated the efficacy and toxicity of Ac-Phe-Lys-PABC-ADM on a nude mice model of peritoneal carcinomatosis, with doxorubicin as positive control. RESULTS In the in vitro study, Ac-Phe-Lys-PABC-ADM had a lower dose-dependent inhibitory effect on SGC-7901 cells. In the in vivo study of control, doxorubicin, and Ac-Phe-Lys-PABC-ADM groups, the median experimental peritoneal carcinomatosis indexes were 6, 1.5, and 1, respectively (P = .004); the body weights were 24.32 ± 1.40 g, 18.40 ± 2.97 g, and 23.61 ± 0.80 g, respectively (P = .000). Biochemical studies showed that Ac-Phe-Lys-PABC-ADM had significantly lower toxicities on the bone marrow, liver, kidney, and particularly heart. Histopathological studies of the control, doxorubicin, and Ac-Phe-Lys-PABC-ADM groups found significant myocardium toxicities in 3, 7, and 4 animals, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Ac-Phe-Lys-PABC-ADM could be an effective molecular targeting drug to treat gastric cancer peritoneal carcinomatosis with enhanced efficacy and reduced toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Hua Shao
- Department of Oncology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Biological Behaviors and Hubei Cancer Clinical Study Center, Wuhan, China
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28
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Matsumura S, Aoki I, Saga T, Shiba K. A tumor-environment-responsive nanocarrier that evolves its surface properties upon sensing matrix metalloproteinase-2 and initiates agglomeration to enhance T₂ relaxivity for magnetic resonance imaging. Mol Pharm 2011; 8:1970-4. [PMID: 21899281 DOI: 10.1021/mp2001999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We designed and synthesized a modified ferritin as a tumor-environment-responsive nanocarrier. We found that this nanocarrier could evolve its surface properties upon sensing a tumor-associated protease, matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), which initiated agglomeration, resulting in the enhancement of T(2) relaxivity for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The designed ferritin contained a triad of modifiers composed of (i) a "sensing" segment (substrate peptide of MMP-2), (ii) "hydrophobic" segments and (iii) a "hydrophilic" segment of polyethylene glycol (PEG). The hydrophilic segment ensured the particles' monodispersibility in aqueous conditions. In the presence of MMP-2 activity, the "sensing" segment was cleaved by the enzyme and its submerged "hydrophobic" segments were exposed on the surface, resulting in the initiation of aggregation. Because ferritin contains ferrihydrite in its inner space, this multimerization resulted in the enhancement of T(2) relaxivity, suggesting that this nanocarrier may be useful as a contrast agent in MRI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachiko Matsumura
- Cancer Institute, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, Ariake, Koto-ku, Tokyo 135-8550, Japan.
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29
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Hu L, Wu X, Han J, Chen L, Vass SO, Browne P, Hall BS, Bot C, Gobalakrishnapillai V, Searle PF, Knox RJ, Wilkinson SR. Synthesis and structure-activity relationships of nitrobenzyl phosphoramide mustards as nitroreductase-activated prodrugs. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:3986-91. [PMID: 21620697 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2011] [Revised: 04/28/2011] [Accepted: 05/02/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
A series of nitrobenzyl phosphoramide mustards and their analogs was designed and synthesized to explore their structure-activity relationships as substrates of nitroreductases from Escherichia coli and trypanosomes and as potential antiproliferative and antiparasitic agents. The position of the nitro group on the phenyl ring was important with the 4-nitrobenzyl phosphoramide mustard (1) offering the best combination of enzyme activity and antiproliferative effect against both mammalian and trypanosomatid cells. A preference was observed for halogen substitutions ortho to benzyl phosphoramide mustard but distinct differences were found in their SAR of substituted 4-nitrobenzyl phosphoramide mustards in E. coli nitroreductase-expressing cells and in trypanosomatids expressing endogenous nitroreductases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longqin Hu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
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30
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Malik R, Qian S, Law B. Design and synthesis of a near-infrared fluorescent nanofiber precursor for detecting cell-secreted urokinase activity. Anal Biochem 2011; 412:26-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2011.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2010] [Revised: 12/28/2010] [Accepted: 01/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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31
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Huang S, Fang R, Xu J, Qiu S, Zhang H, Du J, Cai S. Evaluation of the tumor targeting of a FAPα-based doxorubicin prodrug. J Drug Target 2011; 19:487-96. [PMID: 21284542 DOI: 10.3109/1061186x.2010.511225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Fibroblast activation protein-α (FAPα) is a tumor-associated antigen uniquely expressed by reactive stromal fibroblasts in the majority of human epithelial tumors. FAPα also possesses both post-prolyl peptidase and endopeptidase activities. Consequently, FAPα is increasingly considered as a potential pan-tumor target for designing tumor-targeted prodrugs. We previously conjugated Doxorubicin (Dox) with a FAPα-specific dipeptide (Z-Gly-Pro) to develop a FAPα-targeting prodrug of Dox (FTPD). The aim of current work was to validate the tumor targeting of this targeted-delivery strategy. The results demonstrated that FTPD could effectually release Dox upon the hydrolysis of FAPα as well as the incubation with tumor homogenate of FAPα-positive tumor (4T1 tumor), while it was highly stable in mouse plasma and a variety of tissue homogenates including heart, liver, and so on. And the FAPα-cleaved FTPD exhibited significantly higher cytotoxicity against 4T1 cells in vitro than the uncatalyzed prodrug. Additionally, FTPD produced similar antitumor efficacy in 4T1 tumor-bearing mice to free Dox without obvious cardiotoxic effect. Moreover, subsequent study indicated that the accumulation of FTPD reduced significantly in the heart compared to free Dox. These findings suggest that such FAPα-based prodrug strategy is promising to achieve targeted delivery of antitumor agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sichao Huang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, Guangzhou, PR China
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32
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Gabriel D, Zuluaga MF, Lange N. On the cutting edge: protease-sensitive prodrugs for the delivery of photoactive compounds. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2011; 10:689-703. [DOI: 10.1039/c0pp00341g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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33
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Fröhlich E. Proteases in cutaneous malignant melanoma: relevance as biomarker and therapeutic target. Cell Mol Life Sci 2010; 67:3947-60. [PMID: 20686912 PMCID: PMC11115755 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-010-0469-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2010] [Revised: 07/13/2010] [Accepted: 07/15/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Cutaneous malignant melanoma is the most aggressive skin cancer. It is also the most rapidly spreading cancer in terms of worldwide incidence. Although it is detected by simple inspection and can be relatively easily removed or treated, differential diagnosis to other melanocytic lesions, lack of prognostic markers, and no efficient treatment of advanced melanoma pose problems. Detection and targeting of proteases may represent a useful tool since they play a role in tumor cell metabolism, invasion, angiogenesis and metastasis. This review gives an overview of the role of proteases in development and progression of cutaneous malignant melanoma. In addition, regulation, activation, and interaction of proteases and their inhibitors are explained for tumors in general. The potential use of proteases as differential markers for melanoma mimicking melanocytic lesions, as biomarkers in tissues, and as prognostic serum markers is discussed. Current and future possibilities to target tumor proteases in therapy are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonore Fröhlich
- Institute of Anatomy, University Tübingen, Österbergstr. 3, 72074 Tübingen, Germany.
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Atkinson JM, Falconer RA, Edwards DR, Pennington CJ, Siller CS, Shnyder SD, Bibby MC, Patterson LH, Loadman PM, Gill JH. Development of a novel tumor-targeted vascular disrupting agent activated by membrane-type matrix metalloproteinases. Cancer Res 2010; 70:6902-12. [PMID: 20663911 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-10-1440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Vascular disrupting agents (VDA) offer a strategy to starve solid tumors of nutrients and oxygen concomitant with tumor shrinkage. Several VDAs have progressed into early clinical trials, but their therapeutic value seems to be compromised by systemic toxicity. In this report, we describe the design and characterization of a novel VDA, ICT2588, that is nontoxic until activated specifically in the tumor by membrane-type 1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP). HT1080 cancer cells expressing MT1-MMP were selectively chemosensitive to ICT2588, whereas MCF7 cells that did not express MT1-MMP were nonresponsive. Preferential hydrolysis of ICT2588 to its active metabolite (ICT2552) was observed in tumor homogenates of HT1080 relative to MCF7 homogenates, mouse plasma, and liver homogenate. ICT2588 activation was inhibited by the MMP inhibitor ilomastat. In HT1080 tumor-bearing mice, ICT2588 administration resulted in the formation of the active metabolite, diminution of tumor vasculature, and hemorrhagic necrosis of the tumor. The antitumor activity of ICT2588 was superior to its active metabolite, exhibiting reduced toxicity, improved therapeutic index, enhanced pharmacodynamic effect, and greater efficacy. Coadministration of ICT2588 with doxorubicin resulted in a significant antitumor response (22.6 d growth delay), which was superior to the administration of ICT2588 or doxorubicin as a single agent, including complete tumor regressions. Our findings support the clinical development of ICT2588, which achieves selective VDA targeting based on MT-MMP activation in the tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Atkinson
- Institute of Cancer Therapeutics, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, UK
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35
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Boulware KT, Jabaiah A, Daugherty PS. Evolutionary optimization of peptide substrates for proteases that exhibit rapid hydrolysis kinetics. Biotechnol Bioeng 2010; 106:339-46. [PMID: 20148412 DOI: 10.1002/bit.22693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Protease cleavage site recognition motifs can be identified using protease substrate discovery methodologies, but typically exhibit non-optimal specificity and activity. To enable evolutionary optimization of substrate cleavage kinetics, a two-color cellular library of peptide substrates (CLiPS) methodology was developed. Two-color CLiPS was applied to identify peptide substrates for the tobacco etch virus (TEV) protease from a random pentapeptide library, which were then optimized by screening of a focused, extended substrate library. Quantitative library screening yielded seven amino acid substrates exhibiting rapid hydrolysis by TEV protease and high sequence similarity to the native seven-amino-acid substrate, with a strong consensus of EXLYPhiQG. Comparison of hydrolysis rates for a family of closely related substrates indicates that the native seven-residue TEV substrate co-evolved with TEV protease to facilitate highly efficient hydrolysis. Consensus motifs revealed by screening enabled database identification of a family of related, putative viral protease substrates. More generally, our results suggest that substrate evolution using CLiPS may be useful for optimizing substrate selectivity and activity to enable the design of more effective protease activity probes, molecular imaging agents, and prodrugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin T Boulware
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California-Santa Barbara, 93106, USA
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36
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Vartak DG, Lee BS, Gemeinhart RA. In vitro evaluation of functional interaction of integrin alphavbeta3 and matrix metalloprotease-2. Mol Pharm 2010; 6:1856-67. [PMID: 19799453 DOI: 10.1021/mp900152t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Integrin alphavbeta3 and matrix metalloprotease-2 (MMP-2) are two established molecular targets of angiogenesis. Basic understanding of various forms of functional interaction of integrin alphavbeta3 and active MMP-2 may be used to develop therapeutic approaches. Based upon the idea that integrins are present on the surface of invasive cells and MMP-2 may be localized to this and other cell-surface receptors, we investigated the hypothesis that integrin binding will alter cleavage of MMP-2 substrates. To investigate this hypothesis, integrin-binding and MMP-2 cleavable motifs were combined in a single peptide, MMP-RGD, designed with fluorescent probes for monitoring peptide cleavage. MMP-RGD was bound to integrin alphavbeta3 with equal affinity compared to the integrin-binding motif and was cleaved with equal specificity by active MMP-2. MMP-RGD bound to human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). MMP-2 from HUVECs cleaved MMP-RGD, but the cleavage was not altered due to integrin binding. Our results indicate that integrin alphavbeta3 and active MMP-2 may not be as functionally collaborative for substrate cleavage as expected based on the current knowledge of their cell surface colocalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepali G Vartak
- Department of Biopharmaceutical Sciences, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7231, USA
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37
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Thomas JM, Daugherty PS. Proligands with protease-regulated binding activity identified from cell-displayed prodomain libraries. Protein Sci 2009; 18:2053-9. [PMID: 19653300 DOI: 10.1002/pro.217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A general method was developed for the discovery of protease-activated binding ligands, or proligands, from combinatorial prodomain libraries displayed on the surface of E. coli. Peptide libraries of candidate prodomains were fused with a matrix metalloprotease-2 substrate linker to a vascular endothelial growth factor-binding peptide and sorted using a two-stage flow cytometry screening procedure to isolate proligands that required protease treatment for binding activity. Prodomains that imparted protease-mediated switching activity were identified after three sorting cycles using two unique library design strategies. The best performing proligand exhibited a 100-fold improvement in apparent binding affinity after exposure to protease. This method may prove useful for developing therapeutic and diagnostic ligands with improved systemic targeting specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerry M Thomas
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, 93106, USA
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38
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Jiang Y, DiPaola RS, Hu L. Synthesis and stereochemical preference of peptide 4-aminocyclophosphamide conjugates as potential prodrugs of phosphoramide mustard for activation by prostate-specific antigen (PSA). Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2009; 19:2587-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2009.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2009] [Revised: 03/03/2009] [Accepted: 03/04/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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39
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Law B, Tung CH. Proteolysis: A Biological Process Adapted in Drug Delivery, Therapy, and Imaging. Bioconjug Chem 2009; 20:1683-95. [DOI: 10.1021/bc800500a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Benedict Law
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58105, and The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Ching-Hsuan Tung
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58105, and The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, Houston, Texas 77030
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