Bacillus thuringiensis: from biodiversity to biotechnology

Evaluation of cytotoxic and antimicrobial effects of two Bt Cry proteins on a GMO safety perspective

Studies have contested the innocuousness of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry proteins to mammalian cells as well as to mammals microbiota. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the cytotoxic and antimicrobial effects of two Cry proteins, Cry8Ka5 (a novel mutant protein) and Cry1Ac (a widely distributed protein in GM crops). Evaluation of cyto- and genotoxicity in human lymphocytes was performed as well as hemolytic activity coupled with cellular membrane topography analysis in mammal erythrocytes. Effects of Cry8Ka5 and Cry1Ac upon Artemia sp. nauplii and upon bacteria and yeast growth were assessed. The toxins caused no significant effects on the viability (IC₅₀ > 1,000 µg/mL) or to the cellular DNA integrity of lymphocytes (no effects at 1,000 µg/mL). The Cry8Ka5 and Cry1Ac proteins did not cause severe damage to erythrocytes, neither with hemolysis (IC₅₀ > 1,000 µg/mL) nor with alterations in the membrane. Likewise, the Cry8Ka5 and Cry1Ac proteins presented high LC₅₀ (755.11 and >1,000 µg/mL, resp.) on the brine shrimp lethality assay and showed no growth inhibition of the microorganisms tested (MIC > 1,000 µg/mL). This study contributed with valuable information on the effects of Cry8Ka5 and Cry1Ac proteins on nontarget organisms, which reinforce their potential for safe biotechnological applications.

Susceptibility of Agrotis segetum (noctuidae) to Bacillus thuringiensis and analysis of midgut proteinases

Seventy-eight Bacillus thuringiensis isolates were selected for a screening against the Lepidoptera species Agrotis segetum to search the higher insecticidal activity. In a preliminary bioassay, the spore-crystal mixture of 78 B. thuringiensis isolates was tested against L1 larvae of A. segetum. Fifty-two isolates had more than 60% corrected mortality after 3 days. Seven isolates caused a corrected mortality of 100% on A. segetum. Twelve isolates were selected for a second bioassay investigating the effect of the vegetative insecticidal protein (Vip) against third-instar larvae. After 7 days, the weight gain and the larval stage of each larva were recorded. This bioassay showed an aberration in larval growth increases, morphology, and weight gain. After plasmid pattern analysis, the most active strains are most likely B. thuringiensis kurstaki strains expressing the Vip3A toxin. The absence of two proteinase activities observed in the case of Cry1Ac would be the consequence of the difference in susceptibility of A. segetum to the toxins used.

Bacterial spores as platforms for bioanalytical and biomedical applications

Genetically engineered bacteria-based sensing systems have been employed in a variety of analyses because of their selectivity, sensitivity, and ease of use. These systems, however, have found limited applications in the field because of the inability of bacteria to survive long term, especially under extreme environmental conditions. In nature, certain bacteria, such as those from Clostridium and Bacillus genera, when exposed to threatening environmental conditions are capable of cocooning themselves into a vegetative state known as spores. To overcome the aforementioned limitation of bacterial sensing systems, the use of microorganisms capable of sporulation has recently been proposed. The ability of spores to endow bacteria-based sensing systems with long lives, along with their ability to cycle between the vegetative spore state and the germinated living cell, contributes to their attractiveness as vehicles for cell-based biosensors. An additional application where spores have shown promise is in surface display systems. In that regard, spores expressing certain enzymes, proteins, or peptides on their surface have been presented as a stable, simple, and safe new tool for the biospecific recognition of target analytes, the biocatalytic production of chemicals, and the delivery of biomolecules of pharmaceutical relevance. This review focuses on the application of spores as a packaging method for whole-cell biosensors, surface display of recombinant proteins on spores for bioanalytical and biotechnological applications, and the use of spores as vehicles for vaccines and therapeutic agents.

Acute toxicity and cytotoxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis and Bacillus sphaericus strains on fish and mouse bone marrow

The insecticidal properties of delta-endotoxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) serotypes kurstaki and israelensis and crystal proteins of Bacillus sphaericus (Bs) serotype H5 have been used in insect control for decades. The availability of microbial toxins in biopesticides as well as in plants with incorporated protection has been increasing the concerns about biosafety. Acute toxicity to Danio rerio and cytotoxicity on mouse bone marrow cells and peripheral erythrocytes of Oreochromis niloticus were tested with Bt israelensis, Bt kurstaki and Bs H5 strains. The concentration and dose tested were 10(6) and 10(8) spores/ml, respectively. Neither lethality nor effects on mouse bone marrow were promoted by any strain. In necrosis-apoptosis study on peripheral erythrocytes of O. niloticus an increased frequency of necrotic cells caused by exposure to strains of B. thuringiensis was found. Exposure to B. sphaericus did not show cytotoxic effects in either tested system. None of the strains studied induced apoptosis in contrast with the chemical controls.

Genotoxic evaluation of different delta-endotoxins from Bacillus thuringiensis on zebrafish adults and development in early life stages

The use of toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis as biopesticides in the biological control of insects and in transgenic plants has increased their availability in the environment. Ecotoxicological evaluations of four delta-endotoxins cry 1Aa, cry 1Ab, cry 1Ac, and cry 2A from B. thuringiensis were carried out on zebrafish Danio rerio to explore the adverse effects on their genome and embryos. Cry 1Aa increased the micronucleus (MN) frequency in peripheral erythrocytes of adult D. rerio, while cry 1Ab, cry 1Ac and cry 2A did not show genotoxicity, after 96-h of exposure at concentration of 100mg/L. Exposures to binary mixtures (cry 1Aa+cry 1Ac, 50:50mg/L) and (cry 1 Aa+cry 2A, 50:50mg/L) for 96-h showed also significant increased MN frequency. Other evaluated binary mixtures did not show genotoxicity. Activity of glutathione S-transferase measured in the gills did not seem to be altered after exposure to all tested toxins as well as to the six combinations of binary mixtures. In the embryo-larval study, all tested delta-endotoxins showed embryo toxicity and developmental delay after exposure to the concentrations of 25, 50, 100 and 150mg/L for 96-h. However, each toxin presented a different pattern of toxic response suggesting that a specific approach should be taken into account to its toxicological evaluations.

Spore stage expression of a vegetative insecticidal gene increase toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. aizawai SP41 against Spodoptera exigua

To enhance the toxicity of the Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. aizawai strain SP41 (SP41), the vegetative insecticidal protein (Vip) gene vip3A from SP41 was redirected to the sporulation stage by replacing its native promoter with the strong promoter P19 of the cry11Aa operon. Compared to the wild type, SP41 with PVIP (vip3A with its native promoter and ter) had the relative expression ratios of 457, 548, and 290 at 8, 14, and 20 h of cultivation, respectively, as measured by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (PCR). SP41 transformed by P19VIP (vip3A controlled by P19 promoter with vip3A ter) showed higher expressions (23, 2055, 1831) at the same time points. SP41 with P19VIP20 (vip3A controlled by P19 promoter and containing P20 and operon ter) had the lowest expression levels (3, 11, 9) at any time point. SDS-PAGE analysis of proteins in the culture supernatant of the P19VIP at 8, 14, and 20 h demonstrated a significant increase in Vip3A at the sporulation stage. Using the surface contamination bioassay, the 50% lethal concentration (LC(50)) of whole culture of PVIP, P19VIP, and P19VIP20 at 20 and 48 h of cultivation against Spodoptera exigua larvae were (68.3, 21.2, and 60.2 microg cm(-2)) and (69.8, 41.8, and 74.6 microg cm(-2)), respectively, compared with 86.6 and 104.4 microg cm(-2) for SP41. The results showed that Vip from P19VIP, expressed at spore stage at 20 and 48 h, can increase the toxicity of SP41 for 4.1- and 2.5-fold, respectively.

Characterization of Cry34/Cry35 binary insecticidal proteins from diverse Bacillus thuringiensis strain collections

Bacillus thuringiensis crystal proteins of the Cry34 and Cry35 classes function as binary toxins showing activity on the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte. We surveyed 6,499 B. thuringiensis isolates by hybridization for sequences related to cry35A genes, identifying 78 strains. Proteins of the appropriate molecular mass (ca. 44 kDa) for Cry35 were observed in 42 of the strains. Full-length, or nearly full-length, sequences of 34 cry34 genes and 16 cry35 genes were also obtained from cloning, PCR analysis, and DNA sequencing. These included representatives of all known Cry34A, Cry34B, Cry35A, and Cry35B classes, as well as a novel Cry34A/Cry35A-like pair. Bioassay analysis indicated that cry35-hybridizing strains not producing a ca. 14-kDa protein, indicative of Cry34, were not active on corn rootworms, and that the previously identified Cry34A/Cry35A pairs were more active than the Cry34B/Cry35B pairs. The cry35-hybridizing B. thuringiensis strains were found in locales and materials typical for other B. thuringiensis strains. Comparison of the sequences with the geographic origins of the strains showed that identical, or nearly identical, sequences were found in strains from both Australasia and the Americas. Sequence similarity searches revealed that Cry34 proteins are similar to predicted proteins in Photorhabdus luminescens and Dictyostelium discoidium, and that Cry35Ab1 contains a segment similar to beta-trefoil domains that may be a binding motif. The binary Cry34/Cry35 B. thuringiensis crystal proteins thus appear closely related to each other, are environmentally ubiquitous, and share sequence similarities consistent with activity through membrane disruption in target organisms.

Novel Bacillus thuringiensis binary insecticidal crystal proteins active on western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte

A new family of insecticidal crystal proteins was discovered by screening sporulated Bacillus thuringiensis cultures for oral activity against western corn rootworm (WCR) larvae. B. thuringiensis isolates PS80JJ1, PS149B1, and PS167H2 have WCR insecticidal activity attributable to parasporal inclusion bodies containing proteins with molecular masses of ca. 14 and 44 kDa. The genes encoding these polypeptides reside in apparent operons, and the 14-kDa protein open reading frame (ORF) precedes the 44-kDa protein ORF. Mutagenesis of either gene in the apparent operons dramatically reduced insecticidal activity of the corresponding recombinant B. thuringiensis strain. Bioassays performed with separately expressed, biochemically purified 14- and 44-kDa polypeptides also demonstrated that both proteins are required for WCR mortality. Sequence comparisons with other known B. thuringiensis insecticidal proteins failed to reveal homology with previously described Cry, Cyt, or Vip proteins. However, there is evidence that the 44-kDa polypeptide and the 41.9- and 51.4-kDa binary dipteran insecticidal proteins from Bacillus sphaericus are evolutionarily related. The 14- and 44-kDa polypeptides from isolates PS80JJ1, PS149B1, and PS167H2 have been designated Cry34Aa1, Cry34Ab1, and Cry34Ac1, respectively, and the 44-kDa polypeptides from these isolates have been designated Cry35Aa1, Cry35Ab1, and Cry35Ac1, respectively.