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Ali Vafaei A, Nazari M, Omoumi S, Rashidy-Pour A, Raise-Abdullahi P. Corticosterone injection into the basolateral amygdala before and after memory reactivation impairs the subsequent expression of fear memory in rats: An interaction of glucocorticoids and β-adrenoceptors. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2023; 205:107829. [PMID: 37734437 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2023.107829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid administration, before or after fear memory reactivation, impairs subsequent fear memory expression, but the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. The present study examined the role of basolateral amygdala (BLA) β-adrenoceptors in the effects of intra-BLA corticosterone injection on fear memory in rats. Bilateral cannulae were implanted in the BLA of Wistar male rats. The rats were trained and tested using an inhibitory avoidance task (1 mA footshock for 3 s). Forty-eight hours after training, corticosterone (CORT, 5, 10, or 20 ng/0.5 µl/side) and the β2-adrenoceptor agonist clenbuterol (CLEN, 10 or 20 ng/0.5 µl/side) or the β-adrenoceptor antagonist propranolol (PROP, 250 or 500 ng/0.5 µl/side) were injected into the BLA before or right after memory reactivation (retrieval, Test 1). We performed subsequent tests 2 (Test 2), 5 (Test 3), 7 (Test 4), and 9 (Test 5) days after Test 1. The results demonstrated that CORT injection before Test 1 disrupted memory retrieval and reduced fear expression in Tests 2-5, possibly due to enhanced extinction or impaired reconsolidation. CORT injection after Test 1 also impaired reconsolidation and reduced fear expression in Tests 2-5. CLEN prevented, but PROP exacerbated, the effects of CORT on fear expression. The reminder shock did not recover fear memory in CORT-treated animals, suggesting that reconsolidation, not extinction, was affected. These results indicate that glucocorticoids and β-adrenoceptors in the BLA jointly modulate fear memory reconsolidation and expression. Comprehending the neurobiology of stress and the impact of glucocorticoids on fear memory may lead to new treatments for stress and trauma-induced disorders such as PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abbas Ali Vafaei
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Maryam Nazari
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran
| | - Samira Omoumi
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Ali Rashidy-Pour
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran.
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Monari S, Guillot de Suduiraut I, Grosse J, Zanoletti O, Walker SE, Mesquita M, Wood TC, Cash D, Astori S, Sandi C. Blunted Glucocorticoid Responsiveness to Stress Causes Behavioral and Biological Alterations That Lead to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Vulnerability. Biol Psychiatry 2023:S0006-3223(23)01590-1. [PMID: 37743003 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2023.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding why only a subset of trauma-exposed individuals develop posttraumatic stress disorder is critical for advancing clinical strategies. A few behavioral (deficits in fear extinction) and biological (blunted glucocorticoid levels, small hippocampal size, and rapid-eye-movement sleep [REMS] disturbances) traits have been identified as potential vulnerability factors. However, whether and to what extent these traits are interrelated and whether one of them could causally engender the others are not known. METHODS In a genetically selected rat model of reduced corticosterone responsiveness to stress, we explored posttraumatic stress disorder-related biobehavioral traits using ex vivo magnetic resonance imaging, cued fear conditioning, and polysomnographic recordings combined with in vivo photometric measurements. RESULTS We showed that genetic selection for blunted glucocorticoid responsiveness led to a correlated multitrait response, including impaired fear extinction (observed in males but not in females), small hippocampal volume, and REMS disturbances, supporting their interrelatedness. Fear extinction deficits and concomitant disruptions in REMS could be normalized through postextinction corticosterone administration, causally implicating glucocorticoid deficiency in two core posttraumatic stress disorder-related risk factors and manifestations. Furthermore, reduced REMS was accompanied by higher norepinephrine levels in the hippocampal dentate gyrus that were also reversed by postextinction corticosterone treatment. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate a predominant role for glucocorticoid deficiency over the contribution of reduced hippocampal volume in engendering both REMS alterations and associated deficits in fear extinction consolidation, and they causally implicate blunted glucocorticoids in sustaining neurophysiological disturbances that lead to fear extinction deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Monari
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Isabelle Guillot de Suduiraut
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland; Synapsy Center for Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jocelyn Grosse
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland; Synapsy Center for Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Olivia Zanoletti
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland; Synapsy Center for Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sophie E Walker
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michel Mesquita
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Tobias C Wood
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Diana Cash
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Simone Astori
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland; Synapsy Center for Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Carmen Sandi
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland; Synapsy Center for Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
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Nazari M, Rashidy-Pour A, Ali Vafaei A, Raise-Abdullahi P. Systemic corticosterone administration impairs the late fear memory reconsolidation via basolateral amygdala glucocorticoid receptors: dependence on the time window and memory age. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2023:107797. [PMID: 37385522 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2023.107797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) of the basolateral amygdala (BLA) play an important role in memory reconsolidation. The present study investigated the role of the BLA GRs in the late reconsolidation of fear memory using an inhibitory avoidance (IA) task in male Wistar rats. Stainless steel cannulae were implanted bilaterally into the BLA of the rats. After 7 days of recovery, the animals were trained in a one-trial IA task (1mA, 3s). In Experiment one, 48h after the training session, the animals received 3 systemic doses of corticosterone (CORT; 1, 3, or 10 mg/kg, i.p.) followed by an intra-BLA microinjection of the vehicle (0.3µl/side) at different time points (immediately, 12, or 24h) after memory reactivation. Memory reactivation was performed by returning the animals to the light compartment while the sliding door was open. No shock was delivered during memory reactivation. CORT (10 mg/kg) injection 12h after memory reactivation most effectively impaired the late memory reconsolidation (LMR). In the second part of Experiment one, immediately, 12, or 24h after memory reactivation, GR antagonist RU38486 (RU; 1ng/0.3µl/side) was injected into BLA following a systemic injection of CORT (10 mg/kg) to examine whether it would block the CORT effect. RU inhibited the impairing effects of CORT on LMR. In Experiment two, the animals received CORT (10 mg/kg) with time windows immediately, 3, 6, 12, and 24h after memory reactivation. Again, CORT (10 mg/kg) injection 12h after MR impaired LMR. Memory reactivation was performed in the third Experiment, 7, 14, 28, or 56 days after the training session. Injection of CORT (10 mg/kg) 12h later had no significant effect on the LMR. The impairing effect of CORT was seen only in 2-day-old but not 7, 14, 28, and 56-day-old memories. GRs located in BLA seem to play an important role in the LMR of young memory, as with increasing the age of memories, they become less sensitive to manipulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Nazari
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Ali Rashidy-Pour
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Abbas Ali Vafaei
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
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Meamar M, Rashidy-Pour A, Vafaei AA, Raise-Abdullahi P. β-adrenoceptors of the infra-limbic cortex mediate corticosterone-induced enhancement of acquisition and consolidation of fear memory extinction in rats. Behav Brain Res 2023; 442:114310. [PMID: 36706807 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The extinction of auditory fear conditioning (AFC) refers to reducing the fear responses induced following repeated presentation of a conditioned stimulus (tone) in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus (electric foot shock). Glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) play an important role in extinction, but the underlying neurobiological mechanisms are unclear. This study aimed to investigate the interaction between glucocorticoids and β-adrenoceptors of the infra-limbic cortex (IL) in regulating the acquisition and consolidation of fear memory extinction in rats. Male rats were trained to AFC and received three trial tones (30 s, 4 kHz, 80 dB) co-terminated with a footshock (0.8 mA, 1 s; unconditioned stimulus). Extinction trials were conducted over 3 days after training (Ext 1-3). In experiment 1, rats received clenbuterol (0.25 mg/kg/2 ml, IP) as a β2-adrenoceptor agonist or propranolol (2.5 mg/kg/2 ml, IP) as a β-adrenoceptors antagonist before Ext 1 and immediately after Ext 1 and Ext 2 followed by systemic injection of corticosterone (3 mg/kg/2 ml, IP). In Experiment 2, separate groups of rats received a bilateral intra-IL injection of clenbuterol (50 ng/0.5 µl/side) or propranolol (500 ng/0.5 µl/side) followed by a systemic injection of corticosterone (3 mg/kg/2 ml) before Ext 1 and immediately after Ext 1 and Ext 2. Results indicated that systemic and intra-IL injections of clenbuterol and propranolol inhibited and increased the facilitative effects of corticosterone on fear memory extinction, respectively. These findings show that activating β-adrenergic receptors in the IL mediates glucocorticoid effects on the acquisition and consolidation of auditory-conditioned fear memory extinction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morvarid Meamar
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Ali Rashidy-Pour
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Abbas Ali Vafaei
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran.
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Omoumi S, Rashidy-Pour A, Seyedinia SA, Tarahomi P, Vafaei AA, Raise-Abdullahi P. Corticosterone injection into the infralimbic prefrontal cortex enhances fear memory extinction: Involvement of GABA receptors and the extracellular signal-regulated kinase. Physiol Behav 2023; 265:114156. [PMID: 36918107 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2023.114156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/13/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the interactive effect of glucocorticoid and Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors in the Infralimbic (IL) cortex on fear extinction in rats' auditory fear conditioning task (AFC). Animals received 3 conditioning trial tones (conditioned stimulus, 30 s, 4 kHz, 80 dB) co-terminated with a footshock (unconditioned stimulus, 0.8 mA, 1 s). Extinction testing was conducted over 3 days (Ext 1-3) after conditioning. Intra-IL injection of corticosterone (CORT, 20 ng/0.3 µl/side) was performed 15 min before the first extinction trial (Ext 1) which attenuated auditory fear expression in subsequent extinction trials (Ext 1-3), demonstrating fear memory extinction enhancement. Co-injection of the GABAA agonist muscimol (250 ng/0.3 µl/side) or the GABAB agonist baclofen (250 ng/0.3 µl/side) 15 min before corticosterone, did not significantly affect the facilitative effects of corticosterone on fear extinction. However, co-injection of the GABAA antagonist bicuculline (BIC, 100 ng/0.3 µl/side) or the GABAB antagonist CGP35348 (CGP, 100 ng/0.3 µl/side) 15 min before corticosterone, blocked the facilitative effects of corticosterone on fear extinction. Moreover, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and cAMP response element-binding (CREB) in the IL were examined by Western blotting analysis after the first extinction trial (Ext 1) in some groups. Intra-IL injection of corticosterone increased the ERK activity but not CREB. Co-injection of the bicuculline or CGP35348 blocked the enhancing effect of corticosterone on ERK expression in the IL. Glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) activation in the IL cortex by corticosterone increased ERK activity and facilitated fear extinction. GABAA or GABAB antagonists decreased ERK activity and inhibited corticosterone's effect. GRs and GABA receptors in the IL cortex jointly modulate the fear extinction processes via the ERK pathway. This pre-clinical animal study may highlight GRs and GABA interactions in the IL cortex modulating fear memory processes in fear-related disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Samira Omoumi
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Ali Rashidy-Pour
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Seyed Ali Seyedinia
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Parnia Tarahomi
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Abbas Ali Vafaei
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran.
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Glucocorticoid-based pharmacotherapies preventing PTSD. Neuropharmacology 2023; 224:109344. [PMID: 36402246 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a highly disabling psychiatric condition that may arise after exposure to acute and severe trauma. It is a highly prevalent mental disorder worldwide, and the current treatment options for these patients remain limited due to low effectiveness. The time window right after traumatic events provides clinicians with a unique opportunity for preventive interventions against potential deleterious alterations in brain function that lead to PTSD. Some studies pointed out that PTSD patients present an abnormal function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis that may contribute to a vulnerability toward PTSD. Moreover, glucocorticoids have arisen as a promising option for preventing the disorder's development when administered in the aftermath of trauma. The present work compiles the recent findings of glucocorticoid administration for the prevention of a PTSD phenotype, from human studies to animal models of PTSD. Overall, glucocorticoid-based therapies for preventing PTSD demonstrated moderate evidence in terms of efficacy in both clinical and preclinical studies. Although clinical studies point out that glucocorticoids may not be effective for all patients' subpopulations, those with adequate traits might greatly benefit from them. Preclinical studies provide precise insight into the mechanisms mediating this preventive effect, showing glucocorticoid-based prevention to reduce long-lasting behavioral and neurobiological abnormalities caused by traumatic stress. However, further research is needed to delineate the precise mechanisms and the extent to which these interventions can translate into lower PTSD rates and morbidity. This article is part of the Special Issue on 'Fear, Anxiety and PTSD'.
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Ponomareva OY, Fenster RJ, Ressler KJ. Enhancing Fear Extinction: Pharmacological Approaches. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2023; 64:289-305. [PMID: 37584834 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2023_443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/17/2023]
Abstract
Extinction is the process by which the memory of a learned conditioned association decreases over time and with introduction of new associations. It is a vital part of fear learning, and it is critical to recovery in multiple fear-related disorders, including Specific and Social Phobias, Panic Disorder, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD), and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The process of extinction is also the underlying mechanism for recovery in gold-standard therapies for PTSD, including prolonged exposure, cognitive processing therapy, eye movement desensitization and procession, as well as other empirically-based paradigms. Pharmacological modulators of extinction are thus promising targets for treatment of fear-related disorders. We focus here on emerging psychopharmacological treatments to facilitate extinction: D-cycloserine, scopolamine, losartan, ketamine, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine. We also provide an overview of recent advances in molecular pathways that show promise as targets for extincion and inhibitory learning, including pathways related to cannabinoid, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal signaling, and promising work in neurosteroid compounds.
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Graham BM. The impact of hormonal contraceptives on anxiety treatments: From preclinical models to clinical settings. Front Neuroendocrinol 2022; 67:101030. [PMID: 35995079 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Revised: 07/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Exposure therapy is a central component of the first-line treatment for anxiety disorders, a common mental health condition that is twice as prevalent in women relative to men. A key underlying mechanism of exposure therapy is fear extinction, which is an active learning process supported by a neural circuitry that is highly regulated by ovarian hormones. This review synthesises research examining the impact of hormonal contraceptives on laboratory fear extinction tasks in female rats and women, and on exposure therapy in women with anxiety disorders. The evidence indicates that hormonal contraceptives have a detrimental impact on fear extinction and exposure therapy that is consistent across species, and from laboratory to clinical settings. Candidate pathways by which hormonal contraceptives impede fear extinction and exposure therapy include suppression of endogenous ovarian hormones and glucocorticoids, and downregulation of signalling pathways that support extinction learning. Key areas of focus for future research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bronwyn M Graham
- School of Psychology, The University of New South Wales Australia, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
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Randomized controlled experimental study of hydrocortisone and D-cycloserine effects on fear extinction in PTSD. Neuropsychopharmacology 2022; 47:1945-1952. [PMID: 34799682 PMCID: PMC9485259 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-021-01222-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Fear extinction underlies prolonged exposure, one of the most well-studied treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). There has been increased interest in exploring pharmacological agents to enhance fear extinction learning in humans and their potential as adjuncts to PE. The objective of such adjuncts is to augment the clinical impact of PE on the durability and magnitude of symptom reduction. In this study, we examined whether hydrocortisone (HC), a corticosteroid, and D-Cycloserine (DCS), an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor partial agonist, enhance fear extinction learning and consolidation in individuals with PTSD. In a double-blind placebo-controlled 3-group experimental design, 90 individuals with full or subsyndromal PTSD underwent fear conditioning with stimuli that were paired (CS+) or unpaired (CS-) with shock. Extinction learning occurred 72 h later and extinction retention was tested one week after extinction. HC 25 mg, DCS 50 mg or placebo was administered one hour prior to extinction learning. During extinction learning, the DCS and HC groups showed a reduced differential CS+/CS- skin conductance response (SCR) compared to placebo (b = -0.19, CI = -0.01 to -37, p = 0.042 and b = -0.25, CI = -08 to -0.43, p = 0.005, respectively). A nonsignificant trend for a lower differential CS+/CS- SCR in the DCS group, compared to placebo, (b = -0.25, CI = 0.04 to -0.55, p = 0.089) was observed at retention testing, one week later. A single dose of HC and DCS facilitated fear extinction learning in participants with PTSD symptoms. While clinical implications have yet to be determined, our findings suggest that glucocorticoids and NMDA agonists hold promise for facilitating extinction learning in PTSD.
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Vafaei AA, Rashidy-Pour A, Trahomi P, Omoumi S, Dadkhah M. Role of Amygdala-Infralimbic Cortex Circuitry in Glucocorticoid-induced Facilitation of Auditory Fear Memory Extinction. Basic Clin Neurosci 2022; 13:193-205. [PMID: 36425953 PMCID: PMC9682312 DOI: 10.32598/bcn.2021.2161.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The basolateral amygdala (BLA) and infralimbic area (IL) of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) are two interconnected brain structures that mediate both fear memory expression and extinction. Besides the well-known role of the BLA in the acquisition and expression of fear memory, projections from IL to BLA inhibit fear expression and have a critical role in fear extinction. However, the details of IL-BLA interaction have remained unclear. Here, we investigated the role of functional reciprocal interactions between BLA and IL in mediating fear memory extinction. METHODS Using lidocaine (LID), male rats underwent unilateral or bilateral inactivation of the BLA and then unilateral intra-IL infusion of corticosterone (CORT) prior to extinction training of the auditory fear conditioning paradigm. Freezing behavior was reported as an index for conditioned fear. Infusions were performed before the extinction training, allowing us to examine the effects on fear expression and further extinction memory. Experiments 1-3 investigated the effects of left or right infusion of CORT into IL and LID unilaterally into BLA on fear memory extinction. RESULTS Intra-IL infusion of CORT in the right hemisphere reduced freezing behavior when administrated before the extinction training. Auditory fear memory extinction was impaired by asymmetric inactivation of BLA and CORT infusion in the right IL; however, the same effect was not observed with symmetric inactivation of BLA. CONCLUSION IL-BLA neural circuit may provide additional evidence for the contribution of this circuit to auditory fear extinction. This study demonstrates dissociable roles for right or left BLA in subserving the auditory fear extinction. Our finding also raises the possibility that left BLA-IL circuitry may mediate auditory fear memory extinction via underlying mechanisms. However, further research is required in this area. HIGHLIGHTS Corticosterone infusion in the right (but not the left) infralimbic area facilitates auditory fear memory extinction.Corticosterone infusion in the right infralimbic area following symmetric basolateral amygdala inactivation has no effect on auditory fear memory extinction.Asymmetric basolateral amygdala inactivation prior to corticosterone infusion into the right infralimbic area impairs auditory fear memory extinction. PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY Previous studies have established that glucocorticoids, which are released in stressful conditions, enhance fear memory extinction. In this study, we found that corticosterone infusion into the right infralimbic area, but not the left one, facilitates auditory fear memory extinction. The effect of corticosterone infusion in the infralimbic area was not blocked by the intra-basolateral amygdala injections of lidocaine when administrated in the ipsilateral hemisphere. However, asymmetric basolateral amygdala inactivation and corticosterone infusion into the right infralimbic area impairs auditory fear memory extinction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abbas Ali Vafaei
- Research Center of Physiology, Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Ali Rashidy-Pour
- Research Center of Physiology, Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Parnia Trahomi
- Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Samira Omoumi
- Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Masoomeh Dadkhah
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
- Corresponding Author: Masoomeh Dadkhah, PhD., Address: Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran., Tel: +98 (45) 33522437-39, E-mail:
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Glavonic E, Mitic M, Adzic M. Hallucinogenic drugs and their potential for treating fear-related disorders: Through the lens of fear extinction. J Neurosci Res 2022; 100:947-969. [PMID: 35165930 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.25017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Fear-related disorders, mainly phobias and post-traumatic stress disorder, are highly prevalent, debilitating disorders that pose a significant public health problem. They are characterized by aberrant processing of aversive experiences and dysregulated fear extinction, leading to excessive expression of fear and diminished quality of life. The gold standard for treating fear-related disorders is extinction-based exposure therapy (ET), shown to be ineffective for up to 35% of subjects. Moreover, ET combined with traditional pharmacological treatments for fear-related disorders, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, offers no further advantage to patients. This prompted the search for ways to improve ET outcomes, with current research focused on pharmacological agents that can augment ET by strengthening fear extinction learning. Hallucinogenic drugs promote reprocessing of fear-imbued memories and induce positive mood and openness, relieving anxiety and enabling the necessary emotional engagement during psychotherapeutic interventions. Mechanistically, hallucinogens induce dynamic structural and functional neuroplastic changes across the fear extinction circuitry and temper amygdala's hyperreactivity to threat-related stimuli, effectively mitigating one of the hallmarks of fear-related disorders. This paper provides the first comprehensive review of hallucinogens' potential to alleviate symptoms of fear-related disorders by focusing on their effects on fear extinction and the underlying molecular mechanisms. We overview both preclinical and clinical studies and emphasize the advantages of hallucinogenic drugs over current first-line treatments. We highlight 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and ketamine as the most effective therapeutics for fear-related disorders and discuss the potential molecular mechanisms responsible for their potency with implications for improving hallucinogen-assisted psychotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilija Glavonic
- Department of Molecular Biology and Endocrinology, "VINČA" Institute of Nuclear Sciences-National Institute of thе Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Milos Mitic
- Department of Molecular Biology and Endocrinology, "VINČA" Institute of Nuclear Sciences-National Institute of thе Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Miroslav Adzic
- Department of Molecular Biology and Endocrinology, "VINČA" Institute of Nuclear Sciences-National Institute of thе Republic of Serbia, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
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12
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Meyer HC, Sangha S, Radley JJ, LaLumiere RT, Baratta MV. Environmental certainty influences the neural systems regulating responses to threat and stress. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 131:1037-1055. [PMID: 34673111 PMCID: PMC8642312 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Flexible calibration of threat responding in accordance with the environment is an adaptive process that allows an animal to avoid harm while also maintaining engagement of other goal-directed actions. This calibration process, referred to as threat response regulation, requires an animal to calculate the probability that a given encounter will result in a threat so they can respond accordingly. Here we review the neural correlates of two highly studied forms of threat response suppression: extinction and safety conditioning. We focus on how relative levels of certainty or uncertainty in the surrounding environment alter the acquisition and application of these processes. We also discuss evidence indicating altered threat response regulation following stress exposure, including enhanced fear conditioning, and disrupted extinction and safety conditioning. To conclude, we discuss research using an animal model of coping that examines the impact of stressor controllability on threat responding, highlighting the potential for previous experiences with control, or other forms of coping, to protect against the effects of future adversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi C Meyer
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA, 02215, USA.
| | - Susan Sangha
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA.
| | - Jason J Radley
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
| | - Ryan T LaLumiere
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
| | - Michael V Baratta
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80301, USA.
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13
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Bhatt S, Hillmer AT, Rusowicz A, Nabulsi N, Matuskey D, Angarita GA, Najafzadeh S, Kapinos M, Southwick SM, Krystal JH, Carson RE, Huang Y, Cosgrove KP. Imaging brain cortisol regulation in PTSD with a target for 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1. J Clin Invest 2021; 131:150452. [PMID: 34651587 DOI: 10.1172/jci150452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUNDInvestigations of stress dysregulation in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have focused on peripheral cortisol, but none have examined cortisol in the human brain. This study used positron emission tomography (PET) to image 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1), a cortisol-producing enzyme, as a putative brain cortisol marker in PTSD.METHODSSixteen individuals with PTSD and 17 healthy, trauma-exposed controls (TCs) underwent PET imaging with [18F]AS2471907, a radioligand for 11β-HSD1.RESULTSPrefrontal-limbic 11β-HSD1 availability, estimated as [18F]AS2471907 volume of distribution (VT), was significantly higher in the PTSD group compared with the TC group (β = 1.16, P = 0.0057). Lower prefrontal-limbic 11β-HSD1 availability was related to greater overall PTSD severity (R2 = 0.27, P = 0.038) in the PTSD group. 11β-HSD1 availability was not related to plasma cortisol levels (R2 = 0.026, P = 0.37). In a PTSD subset (n = 10), higher 11β-HSD1 availability was associated with higher availability of translocator protein (TSPO), a microglial marker (β = 4.40, P = 0.039).CONCLUSIONHigher brain cortisol-producing 11β-HSD1 in the PTSD group may represent a resilience-promoting neuroadaptation resulting in lower PTSD symptoms. Along with preliminary associations between 11β-HSD1 and TSPO, corroborating previous evidence of immune suppression in PTSD, these findings collectively challenge previous hypotheses of the deleterious effects of both excessive brain glucocorticoid and brain immune signaling in PTSD.FUNDINGBrain and Behavior Research Foundation Independent Investigator Grant, National Institute of Mental Health grants F30MH116607 and R01MH110674, the Veterans Affairs National Center for PTSD, the Gustavus and Louise Pfeiffer Foundation Fellowship, Clinical and Translational Science Awards grant UL1 TR000142 from the NIH National Center for Advancing Translational Science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivani Bhatt
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Ansel T Hillmer
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging.,Department of Psychiatry, and.,Yale PET Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | | | - Nabeel Nabulsi
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging.,Yale PET Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - David Matuskey
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging.,Department of Psychiatry, and.,Yale PET Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Gustavo A Angarita
- Department of Psychiatry, and.,Yale PET Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | | | - Michael Kapinos
- Yale PET Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Steven M Southwick
- Department of Psychiatry, and.,US Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Clinical Neurosciences Division, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - John H Krystal
- Department of Psychiatry, and.,US Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Clinical Neurosciences Division, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Richard E Carson
- Department of Psychiatry, and.,Yale PET Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Yiyun Huang
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging.,Yale PET Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Kelly P Cosgrove
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging.,Department of Psychiatry, and.,Yale PET Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,US Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Clinical Neurosciences Division, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, Connecticut, USA
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14
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Corticosterone in the dorsolateral striatum facilitates the extinction of stimulus-response memory. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2021; 183:107481. [PMID: 34166790 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2021.107481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid hormones are crucially involved in modulating mnemonic processing of stressful or emotionally arousing experiences. They are known to enhance the consolidation of new memories, including those that extinguish older memories. In this study, we investigated whether glucocorticoids facilitate the extinction of a striatum-dependent, and behaviorally more rigid, stimulus-response memory. For this, male rats were initially trained for six days on a stimulus-response task in a T-maze to obtain a reward after making an egocentric right-turn body response, regardless of the starting position in this maze. This training phase was followed by three extinction sessions in which right-turn body responses were not reinforced. Corticosterone administration into the dorsolateral region of the striatum after the first extinction session dose-dependently enhanced the consolidation of extinction memory: Rats administered the higher dose of corticosterone (30 ng), but not lower doses (5 or 10 ng), exhibited significantly fewer right-turn body responses and had longer latencies compared to vehicle-treated animals on the second and third extinction sessions. Co-administration of the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU 486 (10 ng) prevented the corticosterone effect, indicating that glucocorticoids enhance the extinction of stimulus-response memory via activation of the glucocorticoid receptor. Corticosterone administration into the dorsomedial striatum did not affect extinction memory. These findings indicate that stress-response mechanisms involving corticosterone actions in the dorsolateral striatum facilitate the extinction of stimulus-response memory that might allow for the development of an opportune behavioral strategy.
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15
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Taylor WW, Imhoff BR, Sathi ZS, Liu WY, Garza KM, Dias BG. Contributions of glucocorticoid receptors in cortical astrocytes to memory recall. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 28:126-133. [PMID: 33723032 PMCID: PMC7970741 DOI: 10.1101/lm.053041.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Dysfunctions in memory recall lead to pathological fear; a hallmark of trauma-related disorders, like posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Both, heightened recall of an association between a cue and trauma, as well as impoverished recall that a previously trauma-related cue is no longer a threat, result in a debilitating fear toward the cue. Glucocorticoid-mediated action via the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) influences memory recall. This literature has primarily focused on GRs expressed in neurons or ignored cell-type specific contributions. To ask how GR action in nonneuronal cells influences memory recall, we combined auditory fear conditioning in mice and the knockout of GRs in astrocytes in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), a brain region implicated in memory recall. We found that knocking out GRs in astrocytes of the PFC disrupted memory recall. Specifically, we found that knocking out GRs in astrocytes in the PFC (AstroGRKO) after fear conditioning resulted in higher levels of freezing to the CS+ tone when compared with controls (AstroGRintact). While we did not find any differences in extinction of fear toward the CS+ between these groups, AstroGRKO female but not male mice showed impaired recall of extinction training. These results suggest that GRs in cortical astrocytes contribute to memory recall. These data demonstrate the need to examine GR action in cortical astrocytes to elucidate the basic neurobiology underlying memory recall and potential mechanisms that underlie female-specific biases in the incidence of PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- William W Taylor
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA.,Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90007, USA.,Developmental Neuroscience and Neurogenetics Program, Division of Research on Children, Youth, and Families, The Saban Research Institute, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90027, USA
| | - Barry R Imhoff
- Division of Behavioral Neuroscience and Psychiatric Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Zakia Sultana Sathi
- Division of Behavioral Neuroscience and Psychiatric Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Wei Y Liu
- Developmental Neuroscience and Neurogenetics Program, Division of Research on Children, Youth, and Families, The Saban Research Institute, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90027, USA
| | - Kristie M Garza
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA.,Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Brian G Dias
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA.,Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90007, USA.,Developmental Neuroscience and Neurogenetics Program, Division of Research on Children, Youth, and Families, The Saban Research Institute, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90027, USA.,Division of Behavioral Neuroscience and Psychiatric Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90027, USA
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16
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Cunningham TJ, Mattingly SM, Tlatenchi A, Wirth MM, Alger SE, Kensinger EA, Payne JD. Higher post-encoding cortisol benefits the selective consolidation of emotional aspects of memory. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2021; 180:107411. [PMID: 33609737 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2021.107411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Emotional experiences create durable memory traces in the brain, especially when these memories are consolidated in the presence of stress hormones such as cortisol. Although some research suggests cortisol elevation can increase long-term memory for emotional relative to neutral content, the impact of stress and cortisol on the consolidation of emotional and neutral aspects of memories when they are part of the same experience remains unknown. Here, after encoding complex scenes consisting of negative or neutral objects placed on neutral backgrounds, participants were exposed to a psychosocial stressor (or matched control condition) in order to examine the impact of stress and cortisol on early consolidation processes. The next day, once cortisol levels had returned to baseline, specific and gist recognition memory were tested separately for objects and backgrounds. Results indicate that while there was a numerical increase in memory for negative objects in the stress group, higher endogenous cortisol concentrations were specifically associated with decreased memory for the neutral backgrounds originally paired with negative objects. Moreover, across all participants, cortisol levels were positively correlated with the magnitude of the emotional memory trade-off effect. Specifically, while memory for negative objects was preserved, elevated cortisol during early consolidation was associated with decreased memory for neutral backgrounds that were initially paired with negative objects. These memory effects were observed in both the stricter specific measure of memory and the less conservative measure of gist memory. Together, these findings suggest that rather than influencing all aspects of an experience similarly, elevated cortisol during early consolidation selectively preserves what is most emotionally salient and adaptive to remember while allowing the loss of memory for less important neutral information over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tony J Cunningham
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States; Centre for Sleep and Cognition, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States.
| | - Stephen M Mattingly
- Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, United States(1)
| | - Antonio Tlatenchi
- Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, United States(1)
| | - Michelle M Wirth
- Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, United States(1)
| | - Sara E Alger
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Elizabeth A Kensinger
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Jessica D Payne
- Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, United States(1).
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17
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Kornhuber J, Zoicas I. Neuropeptide Y as Alternative Pharmacotherapy for Antidepressant-Resistant Social Fear. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21218220. [PMID: 33153050 PMCID: PMC7662288 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21218220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In many social anxiety disorder (SAD) patients, the efficacy of antidepressant therapy is unsatisfactory. Here, we investigated whether mice deficient for the lysosomal glycoprotein acid sphingomyelinase (ASM−/−) represent an appropriate tool to study antidepressant-resistant social fear. We also investigated whether neuropeptide Y (NPY) reduces this antidepressant-resistant social fear in ASM−/− mice, given that NPY reduced social fear in a mouse model of SAD, namely social fear conditioning (SFC). We show that neither chronic paroxetine nor chronic amitriptyline administration via drinking water were successful in reducing SFC-induced social fear in ASM−/− mice, while the same treatment reduced social fear in ASM+/− mice and completely reversed social fear in ASM+/+ mice. This indicates that the antidepressants paroxetine and amitriptyline reduce social fear via the ASM-ceramide system and that ASM−/− mice represent an appropriate tool to study antidepressant-resistant social fear. The intracerebroventricular administration of NPY, on the other hand, reduced social fear in ASM−/− mice, suggesting that NPY might represent an alternative pharmacotherapy for antidepressant-resistant social fear. These results suggest that medication strategies aimed at increasing brain NPY concentrations might improve symptoms of social fear in SAD patients who fail to respond to antidepressant treatments.
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18
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Abdullahi PR, Raeis-Abdollahi E, Sameni H, Vafaei AA, Ghanbari A, Rashidy-Pour A. Protective effects of morphine in a rat model of post-traumatic stress disorder: Role of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and beta- adrenergic system. Behav Brain Res 2020; 395:112867. [PMID: 32827567 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2020] [Revised: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) arises after tremendous traumatic experiences. Recently, we have reported that morphine has time-dependent protective effects against behavioral and morphological deficits in the single prolonged stress (SPS) as an experimental model of PTSD in adult male rats. To find the mechanisms underlying the protective effects of morphine against SPS-induced PTSD-like symptoms, the present study investigated the interaction between morphine and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and beta - adrenergic system, which crucially involved in the stress response, on PTSD-like symptoms in male rats. The animals were exposed to the SPS procedure (restraint for 2 h, forced swimming for 20 min, and ether anesthesia) and morphine (10 mg/kg) or saline was injected 24 h following the SPS. The glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU486 (20 mg/kg), the mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist spironolactone (50 mg/kg), and the corticosterone synthesis inhibitor metyrapone (50 mg/kg) were injected 90 min before morphine administration to block the HPA axis activity. The beta - adrenergic receptor blocker propranolol (10 mg/kg) and the peripheral beta-adrenergic receptor blocker nadolol (5 mg/kg) were administered 30 min before morphine injection to block the beta - adrenergic system. Anxiety-like behaviors were evaluated using the elevated plus maze (EPM) 11 days after the SPS. After that, animals were conditioned in a fear-conditioning task and extinction training was performed on days 1, 2, 3, 4 and 11 after fear conditioning. SPS increased anxiety-like behaviors and impaired fear extinction. Morphine injection 24 h after SPS significantly improved anxiety-like behaviors and enhanced fear extinction. The RU486, spironolactone and metyrapone prevented the protective effects of morphine on both SPS-induced anxiety-like behaviors and impaired fear extinction. The propranolol, and nadolol did not prevent the effect of morphine on anxiety-like behaviors, but the propranolol prevented morphine effects on fear extinction in SPS animals. These findings together suggest that the protective effects of morphine on PTSD-like symptoms in rats require a certain level of the HPA axis and central beta - adrenergic activity and any alteration in the function of these systems can impede the protective effects of morphine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ehsan Raeis-Abdollahi
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hamidreza Sameni
- Nervous System Stem Cells Research Center, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Abbas Ali Vafaei
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Ali Ghanbari
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Ali Rashidy-Pour
- Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran.
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19
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Kuijer EJ, Ferragud A, Milton AL. Retrieval-Extinction and Relapse Prevention: Rewriting Maladaptive Drug Memories? Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:23. [PMID: 32153373 PMCID: PMC7044236 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Addicted individuals are highly susceptible to relapse when exposed to drug-associated conditioned stimuli (CSs; "drug cues") even after extensive periods of abstinence. Until recently, these maladaptive emotional drug memories were believed to be permanent and resistant to change. The rediscovery of the phenomenon of memory reconsolidation-by which retrieval of the memory can, under certain conditions, destabilize the previously stable memory before it restabilizes in its new, updated form-has led to the hypothesis that it may be possible to disrupt the strong maladaptive drug-memories that trigger a relapse. Furthermore, recent work has suggested that extinction training "within the reconsolidation window" may lead to a long-term reduction in relapse without the requirement for pharmacological amnestic agents. However, this so-called "retrieval-extinction" effect has been inconsistently observed in the literature, leading some to speculate that rather than reflecting memory updating, it may be the product of facilitation of extinction. In this mini review article, we will focus on factors that might be responsible for the retrieval-extinction effects on preventing drug-seeking relapse and how inter-individual differences may influence this therapeutically promising effect. A better understanding of the psychological and neurobiological mechanisms underpinning the "retrieval-extinction" paradigm, and individual differences in boundary conditions, should provide insights with the potential to optimize the translation of "retrieval-extinction" to clinical populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eloise J. Kuijer
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Antonio Ferragud
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Amy L. Milton
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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20
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Mikami K, Kiyokawa Y, Ishii A, Takeuchi Y. Social buffering enhances extinction of conditioned fear responses by reducing corticosterone levels in male rats. Horm Behav 2020; 118:104654. [PMID: 31830461 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.104654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Revised: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The presence of an affiliative conspecific reduces stress responses to a wide variety of stimuli, which is termed "social buffering." We previously reported that social buffering in male rats ameliorated behavioral responses, as well as hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation, elicited by an auditory conditioned stimulus (CS). In addition, subjects that experienced social buffering did not show stress responses when re-exposed to the CS the next day in the absence of an accompanying rat. However, the mechanisms underlying this enhancement of between-session extinction are poorly understood. In Experiment 1, we compared corticosterone levels at 0, 10, and 15 min after extinction training. Subjects that experienced social buffering had lower corticosterone levels than subjects that trained alone at the end of extinction training. However, corticosterone levels at 10 and 15 min after training were not affected by the experience of social buffering. These results suggest that a lower level of corticosterone during extinction training had an important role in the enhancement of extinction. To directly assess this, in Experiment 2, we manipulated the corticosterone level during extinction training. We found that a subcutaneous injection of corticosterone before extinction training blocked the enhancement of extinction by social buffering. These results demonstrate that the enhancement is caused by a low level of corticosterone during the training. Taken together, we suggest that social buffering enhances extinction of conditioned fear responses by reducing corticosterone levels in male rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaori Mikami
- Laboratory of Veterinary Ethology, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Yasushi Kiyokawa
- Laboratory of Veterinary Ethology, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan.
| | - Akiko Ishii
- Laboratory of Veterinary Ethology, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Yukari Takeuchi
- Laboratory of Veterinary Ethology, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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21
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The Role of Hormonal and Reproductive Status in the Treatment of Anxiety Disorders in Women. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020. [PMID: 32002944 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-32-9705-0_26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Exposure therapy, a key treatment for anxiety disorders, can be modelled in the laboratory using Pavlovian fear extinction. Understanding the hormonal and neurobiological mechanisms underlying fear extinction in females, who are twice more likely than males to present with anxiety disorders, may aid in optimising exposure therapy outcomes in this population. This chapter will begin by discussing the role of the sex hormones, estradiol and progesterone, in fear extinction in females. We will also propose potential mechanisms by which these hormones may modulate fear extinction. The second half of this chapter will discuss the long-term hormonal, neurological and behavioural changes that arise from pregnancy and motherhood and how these changes may alter the features of fear extinction in females. Finally, we will discuss implications of this research for the treatment of anxiety disorders in women with and without prior reproductive experience.
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22
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Kornhuber J, Zoicas I. Neuropeptide Y reduces expression of social fear via simultaneous activation of Y1 and Y2 receptors. J Psychopharmacol 2019; 33:1533-1539. [PMID: 31328614 PMCID: PMC6854880 DOI: 10.1177/0269881119862529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neuropeptide Y (NPY) has anxiolytic effects and facilitates extinction of cued and contextual fear in rodents, thereby acting as a resilience factor against exaggerated fear responses after adverse events. We investigated whether NPY influences acquisition, expression and extinction of social fear in a mouse model of social fear conditioning (SFC). METHODS NPY was administered intracerebroventricularly before SFC or before social fear extinction with or without prior administration of Y1 and/or Y2 receptor antagonists. RESULTS We show that NPY affects SFC-induced social fear in a time point-dependent manner. When administered before SFC, NPY did not affect acquisition, expression and extinction of social fear. However, when administered before social fear extinction, NPY reduced expression of social fear via simultaneous activation of Y1 and Y2 receptors. As such, neither the Y1 receptor antagonist BIBO3304 trifluoroacetate nor the Y2 receptor antagonist BIIE0246 was able to block the effects of NPY completely. However, when administered in combination, they completely blocked the effects of NPY on social fear expression. CONCLUSIONS These findings have important clinical implications, as they suggest that although medication strategies aimed at increasing brain NPY activity are unlikely to prevent the formation of aversive memories after a traumatic social experience, they might improve the recovery from a traumatic social experience by reducing the expression of social fear.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Iulia Zoicas
- Iulia Zoicas, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Schwabachanlage 6, Erlangen 91054, Germany.
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23
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The capacity for acute exercise to modulate emotional memories: A review of findings and mechanisms. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 107:438-449. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.09.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2019] [Revised: 07/14/2019] [Accepted: 09/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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24
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Shi YW, Fan BF, Xue L, Wang XG, Ou XL. Fear renewal activates cyclic adenosine monophosphate signaling in the dentate gyrus. Brain Behav 2019; 9:e01280. [PMID: 31313894 PMCID: PMC6710207 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.1280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fear renewal, the context-specific relapse of a conditioned fear after extinction, is a widely pursued model of post-traumatic stress disorder and phobias. However, its cellular and molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. The dentate gyrus (DG) has emerged as a critical locus of plasticity with relevance to memory, anxiety disorders, and depression, and it contributes to fear memory retrieval. Here, we have identified the role of the DG in fear renewal and its molecular mechanism. MATERIALS AND METHODS Muscimol (MUS), activator of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) forskolin (FSK), inhibitor of protein kinase A (PKA), Rip-cAMP, and a phosphodiesterase inhibitor rolipram were infused into DG of standard deviation rats before renewal testing. cAMP levels after fear renewal was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The protein levels of phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) isoforms were tested by western blot. At last, the roles of cAMP signaling were also tested in the acquisition of fear conditioning, fear retrieval, and extinction. RESULTS Intra-DG treatment of MUS and Rp-cAMP impaired fear renewal. FSK and rolipram exhibited the opposite effect, which also occurred in the retrieval of original fear memory. This change in fear renewal was regulated by PDE4 isoforms PDE4A, PDE4A5, and PDE4D. In addition, FSK and rolipram facilitated the acquisition of fear conditioning in long-term memory, but not short-term memory, while Rp-cAMP impaired long-term memory. For extinction, FSK and rolipram inhibited extinction process, while Rp-cAMP facilitated fear extinction. CONCLUSION These findings demonstrated that fear renewal activated cAMP signaling in the DG through decreased PDE4 activity. Because of the role of cAMP signaling in the acquisition or retrieval of fear conditioning and encoding of extinction, it is speculated that initial learning and extinction may have similarities in molecular mechanism, especially fear retrieval and fear renewal may share cAMP signaling pathway in the DG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Wei Shi
- Faculty of Forensic Medicine, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Province Translational Forensic Medicine Engineering Technology Research Center, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bu-Fang Fan
- Faculty of Forensic Medicine, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Li Xue
- Faculty of Forensic Medicine, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Province Translational Forensic Medicine Engineering Technology Research Center, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiao-Guang Wang
- Faculty of Forensic Medicine, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Province Translational Forensic Medicine Engineering Technology Research Center, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xue-Ling Ou
- Faculty of Forensic Medicine, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
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25
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Comeras LB, Herzog H, Tasan RO. Neuropeptides at the crossroad of fear and hunger: a special focus on neuropeptide Y. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2019; 1455:59-80. [PMID: 31271235 PMCID: PMC6899945 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.14179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Survival in a natural environment forces an individual into constantly adapting purposive behavior. Specified interoceptive neurons monitor metabolic and physiological balance and activate dedicated brain circuits to satisfy essential needs, such as hunger, thirst, thermoregulation, fear, or anxiety. Neuropeptides are multifaceted, central components within such life‐sustaining programs. For instance, nutritional depletion results in a drop in glucose levels, release of hormones, and activation of hypothalamic and brainstem neurons. These neurons, in turn, release several neuropeptides that increase food‐seeking behavior and promote food intake. Similarly, internal and external threats activate neuronal pathways of avoidance and defensive behavior. Interestingly, specific nuclei of the hypothalamus and extended amygdala are activated by both hunger and fear. Here, we introduce the relevant neuropeptides and describe their function in feeding and emotional‐affective behaviors. We further highlight specific pathways and microcircuits, where neuropeptides may interact to identify prevailing homeostatic needs and direct respective compensatory behaviors. A specific focus will be on neuropeptide Y, since it is known for its pivotal role in metabolic and emotional pathways. We hypothesize that the orexigenic and anorexigenic properties of specific neuropeptides are related to their ability to inhibit fear and anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas B Comeras
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Herbert Herzog
- Neuroscience Division, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ramon O Tasan
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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26
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Brueckner AH, Lass-Hennemann J, Wilhelm FH, Ferreira de Sá DS, Michael T. Cortisol administration after extinction in a fear-conditioning paradigm with traumatic film clips prevents return of fear. Transl Psychiatry 2019; 9:128. [PMID: 30962423 PMCID: PMC6453889 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-019-0455-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Revised: 09/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cortisol is a stress hormone and potent modulator of learning and memory processes. If administered after learning, cortisol can enhance memory consolidation. Yet it is unknown whether cortisol administration after fear extinction learning strengthens extinction memory. Extinction is a crucial mechanism underlying psychotherapy of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The present study examined whether extinction can be enhanced by administering cortisol after extinction training. In a registered, randomized, double-blind and placebo controlled trial, 50 healthy participants were exposed to a differential fear-conditioning paradigm with neutral faces as conditioned stimuli (CS) and traumatic film clips as unconditioned stimuli (US). They received either cortisol (n = 25) or placebo (n = 25) immediately after extinction. The cortisol group showed less fear during a return of fear manipulation (reinstatement) evidenced by attenuated fear potentiated startle responses and US-expectancy ratings than the placebo group. Results indicate that cortisol administration after fear extinction strengthens extinction memory and suggest that it might be advantageous to administer cortisol subsequent to successful exposure treatment sessions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra H. Brueckner
- 0000 0001 2167 7588grid.11749.3aDivision of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Johanna Lass-Hennemann
- 0000 0001 2167 7588grid.11749.3aDivision of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Frank H. Wilhelm
- 0000000110156330grid.7039.dDivision of Clinical Psychology, Psychotherapy and Health Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Diana S. Ferreira de Sá
- 0000 0001 2167 7588grid.11749.3aDivision of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Tanja Michael
- 0000 0001 2167 7588grid.11749.3aDivision of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
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27
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Dunlop BW, Wong A. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in PTSD: Pathophysiology and treatment interventions. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2019; 89:361-379. [PMID: 30342071 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Revised: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Questions of how altered functioning of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis contribute to the development and maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have been the focus of extensive animal and human research. As a rule, results have been inconsistent across studies, likely due to a variety of confounding variables that have received inadequate attention. Important confounding factors include the effects of early life stress, biological sex, and the glucocorticoid used for interventions. In this manuscript we review: 1) the literature on identified abnormalities of HPA axis function in PTSD, both in terms of basal functioning and as part of challenge paradigms; 2) the role of HPA axis function pre- and immediately post-trauma as a risk factor for PTSD development; 3) the impact of HPA axis genes' allelic variants and epigenetic modifications on PTSD risk; 4) the contributions of HPA axis components to fear learning and extinction; and 5) therapeutic manipulations of the HPA axis to both prevent and treat PTSD, including the role of glucocorticoids as part of medication enhanced psychotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boadie W Dunlop
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Andrea Wong
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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28
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Yoon S, Kim YK. Neuroendocrinological treatment targets for posttraumatic stress disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2019; 90:212-222. [PMID: 30502374 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Revised: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is prevalent, disabling, and frequently becomes chronic. Despite this, only two selective serotonergic reuptake inhibitors have been approved to date for its treatment by the United States Food and Drug Administration, and treatment results are often disappointing, with a remission rate of <30%. Certain neuroendocrinological systems are currently gaining attention with respect to their use for PTSD prevention and treatment as standalone options or medication-enhanced psychotherapy due to their involvement in physiological stress reactions, memory consolidation and extinction, cognitive appraisal to stress, and attachment and resilient coping strategies, which are important in the pathogenesis of PTSD. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis system takes the most important role in stress reactions. Hydrocortisone has been studied for the prevention of PTSD, and some meta-analyses have suggested its possible efficacy; furthermore, it has been considered both as monotherapy and as an augmentation to psychotherapy in PTSD patients, with some positive results. Glucocorticoid receptor antagonists and corticotropin-releasing factor type 1 antagonists have also been considered for clinical use in PTSD treatment. Additionally, other neuroendocrinological systems have been studied in PTSD including the use of oxytocin for PTSD prevention and augmentation to psychotherapy, allopregnanolone, and neuropeptide Y (NPY) for PTSD treatment. For now, however, these studies offer only limited evidence of efficacy, thus it is prudent to study this issue more vigorously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seoyoung Yoon
- Department of Psychiatry, Catholic University of Daegu school of Medicine, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Ku Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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29
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Zuj DV, Norrholm SD. The clinical applications and practical relevance of human conditioning paradigms for posttraumatic stress disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2019; 88:339-351. [PMID: 30134147 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Revised: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The classical conditioning paradigm of fear learning has spawned a number of experimental variations for the explanation of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) etiology. These paradigms include extinction learning and recall, fear inhibition, fear generalization, and conditioned avoidance. As such, each of these paradigms have significant applications for understanding the development, maintenance, treatment, and relapse of the fear-related features of PTSD. In the present review, we describe each of these conditioning-based paradigms with reference to the clinical applications, and supported by case examples from patients with severe PTSD symptoms. We also review the neurobiological models of conditioning and extinction in animals, psychiatrically healthy humans, and PTSD patients, and discuss the current balance of evidence suggesting a number of biological, behavioral, and cognitive mechanisms/moderators of the conditioning and extinction process in experimental and clinical contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel V Zuj
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, UK
| | - Seth Davin Norrholm
- Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Mental Health Service Line, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, USA.
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30
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Hassell JE, Nguyen KT, Gates CA, Lowry CA. The Impact of Stressor Exposure and Glucocorticoids on Anxiety and Fear. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2019; 43:271-321. [PMID: 30357573 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2018_63] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Anxiety disorders and trauma- and stressor-related disorders, such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), are common and are associated with significant economic and social burdens. Although trauma and stressor exposure are recognized as a risk factors for development of anxiety disorders and trauma or stressor exposure is recognized as essential for diagnosis of PTSD, the mechanisms through which trauma and stressor exposure lead to these disorders are not well characterized. An improved understanding of the mechanisms through which trauma or stressor exposure leads to development and persistence of anxiety disorders or PTSD may result in novel therapeutic approaches for the treatment of these disorders. Here, we review the current state-of-the-art theories, with respect to mechanisms through which stressor exposure leads to acute or chronic exaggeration of avoidance or anxiety-like defensive behavioral responses and fear, endophenotypes in both anxiety disorders and trauma- and stressor-related psychiatric disorders. In this chapter, we will explore physiological responses and neural circuits involved in the development of acute and chronic exaggeration of anxiety-like defensive behavioral responses and fear states, focusing on the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and glucocorticoid hormones.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Hassell
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
- Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - K T Nguyen
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - C A Gates
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - C A Lowry
- Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA.
- Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA.
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA.
- Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA.
- Veterans Health Administration, Rocky Mountain Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center, Denver Veterans Affairs Medical Center (VAMC), Denver, CO, USA.
- Military and Veteran Microbiome Consortium for Research and Education (MVM-CoRE), Denver, CO, USA.
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31
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Flavell CR, Lee JLC. Dopaminergic D1 receptor signalling is necessary, but not sufficient for cued fear memory destabilisation. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:3667-3676. [PMID: 31392356 PMCID: PMC6892761 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05338-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Pharmacological targeting of memory reconsolidation is a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of fear memory-related disorders. However, the success of reconsolidation-based approaches depends upon the effective destabilisation of the fear memory by memory reactivation. OBJECTIVES Here, we aimed to determine the functional involvement of dopamine D1 receptors in cued fear memory destabilisation, using systemic drug administration. RESULTS We observed that direct D1 receptor agonism was not sufficient to stimulate tone fear memory destabilisation to facilitate reconsolidation disruption by the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist mifepristone. Instead, administration of the nootropic nefiracetam did facilitate mifepristone-induced amnesia, in a manner that was dependent upon dopamine D1 receptor activation. Finally, while the combined treatment with nefiracetam and mifepristone did not confer fear-reducing effects under conditions of extinction learning, there was some evidence that mifepristone reduces fear expression irrespective of memory reactivation parameters. CONCLUSIONS The use of combination pharmacological treatment to stimulate memory destabilisation and impair reconsolidation has potential therapeutic benefits, without risking a maladaptive increase of fear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte R. Flavell
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Hills Building, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT UK
| | - Jonathan L. C. Lee
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Hills Building, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT UK
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32
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Cue specificity of reconsolidation update mechanism in remote fear memories. ACTA PSYCHOLOGICA SINICA 2019. [DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1041.2019.00316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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33
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Glucocorticoid-induced enhancement of extinction-from animal models to clinical trials. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:183-199. [PMID: 30610352 PMCID: PMC6373196 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-5116-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Extensive evidence from both animal model and human research indicates that glucocorticoid hormones are crucially involved in modulating memory performance. Glucocorticoids, which are released during stressful or emotionally arousing experiences, enhance the consolidation of new memories, including extinction memory, but reduce the retrieval of previously stored memories. These memory-modulating properties of glucocorticoids have recently received considerable interest for translational purposes because strong aversive memories lie at the core of several fear-related disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder and phobias. Moreover, exposure-based psychological treatment of these disorders relies on successful fear extinction. In this review, we argue that glucocorticoid-based interventions facilitate fear extinction by reducing the retrieval of aversive memories and enhancing the consolidation of extinction memories. Several clinical trials have already indicated that glucocorticoids might be indeed helpful in the treatment of fear-related disorders.
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34
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Gunduz-Cinar O, Brockway E, Lederle L, Wilcox T, Halladay LR, Ding Y, Oh H, Busch EF, Kaugars K, Flynn S, Limoges A, Bukalo O, MacPherson KP, Masneuf S, Pinard C, Sibille E, Chesler EJ, Holmes A. Identification of a novel gene regulating amygdala-mediated fear extinction. Mol Psychiatry 2019; 24:601-612. [PMID: 29311651 PMCID: PMC6035889 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-017-0003-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2016] [Revised: 10/08/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Recent years have seen advances in our understanding of the neural circuits associated with trauma-related disorders, and the development of relevant assays for these behaviors in rodents. Although inherited factors are known to influence individual differences in risk for these disorders, it has been difficult to identify specific genes that moderate circuit functions to affect trauma-related behaviors. Here, we exploited robust inbred mouse strain differences in Pavlovian fear extinction to uncover quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with this trait. We found these strain differences to be resistant to developmental cross-fostering and associated with anatomical variation in basolateral amygdala (BLA) perineuronal nets, which are developmentally implicated in extinction. Next, by profiling extinction-driven BLA expression of QTL-linked genes, we nominated Ppid (peptidylprolyl isomerase D, a member of the tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) protein family) as an extinction-related candidate gene. We then showed that Ppid was enriched in excitatory and inhibitory BLA neuronal populations, but at lower levels in the extinction-impaired mouse strain. Using a virus-based approach to directly regulate Ppid function, we demonstrated that downregulating BLA-Ppid impaired extinction, while upregulating BLA-Ppid facilitated extinction and altered in vivo neuronal extinction encoding. Next, we showed that Ppid colocalized with the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in BLA neurons and found that the extinction-facilitating effects of Ppid upregulation were blocked by a GR antagonist. Collectively, our results identify Ppid as a novel gene involved in regulating extinction via functional actions in the BLA, with possible implications for understanding genetic and pathophysiological mechanisms underlying risk for trauma-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ozge Gunduz-Cinar
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Emma Brockway
- 0000 0004 0481 4802grid.420085.bLaboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Lauren Lederle
- 0000 0004 0481 4802grid.420085.bLaboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Troy Wilcox
- 0000 0004 0374 0039grid.249880.fThe Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME USA
| | - Lindsay R. Halladay
- 0000 0004 0481 4802grid.420085.bLaboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Ying Ding
- Joint Carnegie Mellon University–University of Pittsburgh Ph.D. Program in Computational Biology, Pittsburgh, PA USA
| | - Hyunjung Oh
- 0000 0004 1936 9000grid.21925.3dDepartment of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA USA ,0000 0001 2157 2938grid.17063.33Departments of Psychiatry and Pharmacology & Toxicology, Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute of CAMH, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Erica F. Busch
- 0000 0004 0481 4802grid.420085.bLaboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Katie Kaugars
- 0000 0004 0481 4802grid.420085.bLaboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Shaun Flynn
- 0000 0004 0481 4802grid.420085.bLaboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Aaron Limoges
- 0000 0004 0481 4802grid.420085.bLaboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Olena Bukalo
- 0000 0004 0481 4802grid.420085.bLaboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Kathryn P. MacPherson
- 0000 0004 0481 4802grid.420085.bLaboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Sophie Masneuf
- 0000 0004 0481 4802grid.420085.bLaboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Courtney Pinard
- 0000 0004 0481 4802grid.420085.bLaboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Etienne Sibille
- 0000 0004 1936 9000grid.21925.3dDepartment of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA USA ,0000 0001 2157 2938grid.17063.33Departments of Psychiatry and Pharmacology & Toxicology, Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute of CAMH, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Elissa J. Chesler
- 0000 0004 0374 0039grid.249880.fThe Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME USA
| | - Andrew Holmes
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Fasting enhances extinction retention and prevents the return of fear in humans. Transl Psychiatry 2018; 8:214. [PMID: 30301955 PMCID: PMC6177454 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-018-0260-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Fear is prone to return following extinction that is the basis of exposure therapy for fear-related disorders. Manipulations that enhance the extinction process can be beneficial for treatment. Animal studies have shown that fasting or caloric restriction can enhance extinction and inhibit the return of fear. The present study examined the effects of fasting on fear acquisition, extinction, and the return of fear in humans. One hundred and twenty-five male participants were randomized into a fasting group and food group and exposed to a Pavlovian fear conditioning paradigm. Changes in plasma cortisol and ghrelin levels were examined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. One-night fasting had no effect on fear acquisition but enhanced fear extinction retention and prevented the return of fear, and this effect persisted for at least 6 months. This procedure was also effective for remote fear memory. Plasma ghrelin levels were elevated after fasting and had a negative relationship with the fear response in spontaneous recovery test. However, overnight fasting did not affect cortisol levels. These findings indicate that fasting enhances extinction retention and prevents the return of fear, without influencing fear memory formation. We propose that this novel procedure may open new avenues for promoting extinction-based therapies for fear-related disorders.
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Kredlow MA, Eichenbaum H, Otto MW. Memory creation and modification: Enhancing the treatment of psychological disorders. AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST 2018; 73:269-285. [PMID: 29494172 PMCID: PMC5897133 DOI: 10.1037/amp0000185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Modification of the ongoing influence of maladaptive cognitive, emotional, and behavioral patterns is a fundamental feature of many psychological treatments. Accordingly, a clear understanding of the nature of memory adaptation and accommodation to therapeutic learning becomes an important issue for (1) understanding the impact of clinical interventions, and (2) considering innovations in treatment strategies. In this article, we consider advances in the conceptualization of memory processes and memory modification research relative to clinical treatment. We review basic research on the formation of memories, the way in which new learning is integrated within memory structures, and strategies to influence the nature and degree to which new learning is integrated. We then discuss cognitive/behavioral and pharmacological strategies for influencing memory formation in relation to disorder prevention or treatment. Our goal is to foster awareness of current strategies for enhancing therapeutic learning and to encourage research on potential new avenues for memory enhancement in service of the treatment of mental health disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michael W Otto
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University
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37
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Infralimbic dopamine D2 receptors mediate glucocorticoid-induced facilitation of auditory fear memory extinction in rats. Brain Res 2018; 1682:84-92. [PMID: 29329984 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2018.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2017] [Revised: 01/01/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The infralimbic (IL) cortex of the medial prefrontal cortex plays an important role in the extinction of fear memory. Also, it has been showed that both brain glucocorticoid and dopamine receptors are involved in many processes such as fear extinction that drive learning and memory; however, the interaction of these receptors in the IL cortex remains unclear. We examined a putative interaction between the effects of glucocorticoid and dopamine receptors stimulation in the IL cortex on fear memory extinction in an auditory fear conditioning paradigm in male rats. Corticosterone (the endogenous glucocorticoid receptor ligand), or RU38486 (the synthetic glucocorticoid receptor antagonist) microinfusion into the IL cortex 10 min before test 1 attenuated auditory fear expression at tests 1-3, suggesting as an enhancement of fear extinction. The effect of corticosterone, but not RU38486 was counteracted by the dopamine D2 receptor antagonist sulpiride pre-treatment administered into the IL (at a dose that failed to alter freezing behavior on its own). In contrast, intra-IL infusion of the dopamine D1 receptor antagonist SCH23390 pre-treatment failed to alter freezing behavior. These findings provide evidence for the involvement of the IL cortex D2 receptors in CORT-induced facilitation of fear memory extinction.
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Integrating Endocannabinoid Signaling and Cannabinoids into the Biology and Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 2018; 43:80-102. [PMID: 28745306 PMCID: PMC5719095 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2017.162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Revised: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to stress is an undeniable, but in most cases surmountable, part of life. However, in certain individuals, exposure to severe or cumulative stressors can lead to an array of pathological conditions including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), characterized by debilitating trauma-related intrusive thoughts, avoidance behaviors, hyperarousal, as well as depressed mood and anxiety. In the context of the rapidly changing political and legal landscape surrounding use of cannabis products in the USA, there has been a surge of public and research interest in the role of cannabinoids in the regulation of stress-related biological processes and in their potential therapeutic application for stress-related psychopathology. Here we review the current state of knowledge regarding the effects of cannabis and cannabinoids in PTSD and the preclinical and clinical literature on the effects of cannabinoids and endogenous cannabinoid signaling systems in the regulation of biological processes related to the pathogenesis of PTSD. Potential therapeutic implications of the reviewed literature are also discussed. Finally, we propose that a state of endocannabinoid deficiency could represent a stress susceptibility endophenotype predisposing to the development of trauma-related psychopathology and provide biologically plausible support for the self-medication hypotheses used to explain high rates of cannabis use in patients with trauma-related disorders.
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Merz CJ, Hamacher-Dang TC, Stark R, Wolf OT, Hermann A. Neural Underpinnings of Cortisol Effects on Fear Extinction. Neuropsychopharmacology 2018; 43:384-392. [PMID: 28948980 PMCID: PMC5729571 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2017.227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Revised: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Extinction of conditioned fear embodies a crucial mechanism incorporated in exposure therapy. Clinical studies demonstrated that application of the stress hormone cortisol before exposure sessions facilitates exposure success, but the underlying neural correlates remain unknown. Context- and stimulus-dependent cortisol effects on extinction learning will be characterized in this study and tested in the extinction and in a new context. Forty healthy men participated in a 3-day fear conditioning experiment with fear acquisition in context A (day 1), extinction training in context B (day 2), and recall in context B and a new context C one week later (day 3). Hydrocortisone (30 mg) or placebo was given before extinction training. Blood-oxygen-level-dependent responses and skin conductance responses (SCRs) served as dependent measures. At the beginning of extinction training, cortisol reduced conditioned SCRs, diminished activation of the amygdala-hippocampal complex, and enhanced functional connectivity of the anterior parahippocampal gyrus with the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC). After one week, the cortisol group showed increased hippocampal activation and connectivity to the vmPFC toward an extinguished stimulus and reduced insula activation toward a nonextinguished stimulus in the extinction context. However, this inhibitory cortisol effect did not extend to the new context. Taken together, cortisol reduced fear recall at the beginning of extinction and facilitated the consolidation of the extinction memory as evidenced by an inhibitory activation pattern one week later. The stress hormone exerted a critical impact on the amygdala-hippocampus-vmPFC network underlying fear and extinction memories. However, cortisol did not attenuate the context dependency of extinction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Josef Merz
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany,Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany, Tel: +49 234 3224498, Fax: +49 234 14308, E-mail:
| | | | - Rudolf Stark
- Department of Psychotherapy and Systems Neuroscience, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany,Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Oliver Tobias Wolf
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Andrea Hermann
- Department of Psychotherapy and Systems Neuroscience, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany,Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
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Overtraining modifies spatial memory susceptibility to corticosterone administration. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2017; 145:232-239. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2017.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2017] [Revised: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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41
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Balsevich G, Petrie GN, Hill MN. Endocannabinoids: Effectors of glucocorticoid signaling. Front Neuroendocrinol 2017; 47:86-108. [PMID: 28739508 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2017.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Revised: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
For decades, there has been speculation regarding the interaction of cannabinoids with glucocorticoid systems. Given the functional redundancy between many of the physiological effects of glucocorticoids and cannabinoids, it was originally speculated that the biological mechanisms of cannabinoids were mediated by direct interactions with glucocorticoid systems. With the discovery of the endocannabinoid system, additional research demonstrated that it was actually the opposite; glucocorticoids recruit endocannabinoid signaling, and that the engagement of endocannabinoid signaling mediated many of the neurobiological and physiological effects of glucocorticoids. With the development of advances in pharmacology and genetics, significant advances in this area have been made, and it is now clear that functional interactions between these systems are critical for a wide array of physiological processes. The current review acts a comprehensive summary of the contemporary state of knowledge regarding the biological interactions between glucocorticoids and endocannabinoids, and their potential role in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Balsevich
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Gavin N Petrie
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Matthew N Hill
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Mathison Centre for Mental Health Research and Education, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Departments of Cell Biology and Anatomy and Psychiatry, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.
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Michopoulos V, Norrholm SD, Stevens JS, Glover EM, Rothbaum BO, Gillespie CF, Schwartz AC, Ressler KJ, Jovanovic T. Dexamethasone facilitates fear extinction and safety discrimination in PTSD: A placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2017; 83:65-71. [PMID: 28595089 PMCID: PMC5524593 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2017] [Revised: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/26/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Psychophysiological hallmarks of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) include exaggerated fear responses, impaired inhibition and extinction of conditioned fear, and decreased discrimination between safety and fear cues. This increased fear load associated with PTSD can be a barrier to effective therapy thus indicating the need for new treatments to reduce fear expression in people with PTSD. One potential biological target for reducing fear expression in PTSD is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which is dysregulated in PTSD. Recent translational rodent studies and cross-sectional clinical studies have shown that dexamethasone administration and the resulting suppression of cortisol in individuals with PTSD leads to a decrease in the fear responses characteristic of PTSD. These data, taken together, suggest that dexamethasone may serve as a novel pharmacologic intervention for heightened fear responses in PTSD. We conducted a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to test our hypothesis that dexamethasone administration and the concomitant suppression of HPA axis hyperactivity would attenuate fear expression and enhance fear extinction in individuals with PTSD. Study participants (n=62) were recruited from Grady Memorial Hospital in Atlanta, GA. Participants were randomized to receive dexamethasone or placebo prior to fear conditioning and extinction, in a counterbalanced design (treatments separated by a week). Both PTSD- (n=37) and PTSD+ (n=25) participants showed significant startle increases in the presence of the danger signal during placebo and dexamethasone treatments (all p<0.05). However, only PTSD- control participants showed decreases in fear-potentiated startle across extinction blocks during both conditions (p's≤0.001), with PTSD+ participants showing deficits in fear extinction and safety discrimination in the placebo condition. Notably, extinction and discrimination deficits in PTSD+ subjects were markedly reversed with dexamethasone (p<0.001). These data suggest that dexamethasone may serve as a pharmacological agent with which to facilitate fear extinction and discrimination in individuals with PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasiliki Michopoulos
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia,Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Seth D. Norrholm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia,Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Mental Health Service Line, Decatur
| | - Jennifer S. Stevens
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Ebony M. Glover
- Department of Psychology, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, Georgia
| | - Barbara O. Rothbaum
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Charles F. Gillespie
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Ann C. Schwartz
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Kerry J Ressler
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia,Harvard/McLean Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia.
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The role of glucocorticoids in emotional memory reconsolidation. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2017; 142:126-134. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2016.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Revised: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Shi YW, Fan BF, Xue L, Wen JL, Zhao H. Regulation of Fear Extinction in the Basolateral Amygdala by Dopamine D2 Receptors Accompanied by Altered GluR1, GluR1-Ser845 and NR2B Levels. Front Behav Neurosci 2017; 11:116. [PMID: 28676746 PMCID: PMC5476700 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The amygdala, a critical structure for both Pavlovian fear conditioning and fear extinction, receives sparse but comprehensive dopamine innervation and contains dopamine D1 and D2 receptors. Fear extinction, which involves learning to suppress the expression of a previously learned fear, appears to require the dopaminergic system. The specific roles of D2 receptors in mediating associative learning underlying fear extinction require further study. Intra-basolateral amygdala (BLA) infusions of a D2 receptor agonist, quinpirole, and a D2 receptor antagonist, sulpiride, prior to fear extinction and extinction retention were tested 24 h after fear extinction training for long-term memory (LTM). LTM was facilitated by quinpirole and attenuated by sulpiride. In addition, A-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor glutamate receptor 1 (GluR1) subunit, GluR1 phospho-Ser845, and N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor NR2B subunit levels in the BLA were generally increased by quinpirole and down-regulated by sulpiride. The present study suggests that activation of D2 receptors facilitates fear extinction and that blockade of D2 receptors impairs fear extinction, accompanied by changes in GluR1, GluR1-Ser845 and NR2B levels in the amygdala.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Wei Shi
- Faculty of Forensic Medicine, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen UniversityGuangzhou, China.,Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen UniversityGuangzhou, China.,Guangdong Province Translational Forensic Medicine Engineering Technology Research Center, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen UniversityGuangzhou, China
| | - Bu-Fang Fan
- Faculty of Forensic Medicine, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen UniversityGuangzhou, China
| | - Li Xue
- Faculty of Forensic Medicine, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen UniversityGuangzhou, China.,Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen UniversityGuangzhou, China.,Guangdong Province Translational Forensic Medicine Engineering Technology Research Center, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen UniversityGuangzhou, China
| | - Jia-Ling Wen
- Faculty of Forensic Medicine, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen UniversityGuangzhou, China
| | - Hu Zhao
- Faculty of Forensic Medicine, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen UniversityGuangzhou, China.,Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen UniversityGuangzhou, China.,Guangdong Province Translational Forensic Medicine Engineering Technology Research Center, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen UniversityGuangzhou, China
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Circadian Rhythms in Fear Conditioning: An Overview of Behavioral, Brain System, and Molecular Interactions. Neural Plast 2017; 2017:3750307. [PMID: 28698810 PMCID: PMC5494081 DOI: 10.1155/2017/3750307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The formation of fear memories is a powerful and highly evolutionary conserved mechanism that serves the behavioral adaptation to environmental threats. Accordingly, classical fear conditioning paradigms have been employed to investigate fundamental molecular processes of memory formation. Evidence suggests that a circadian regulation mechanism allows for a timestamping of such fear memories and controlling memory salience during both their acquisition and their modification after retrieval. These mechanisms include an expression of molecular clocks in neurons of the amygdala, hippocampus, and medial prefrontal cortex and their tight interaction with the intracellular signaling pathways that mediate neural plasticity and information storage. The cellular activities are coordinated across different brain regions and neural circuits through the release of glucocorticoids and neuromodulators such as acetylcholine, which integrate circadian and memory-related activation. Disturbance of this interplay by circadian phase shifts or traumatic experience appears to be an important factor in the development of stress-related psychopathology, considering these circadian components are of critical importance for optimizing therapeutic approaches to these disorders.
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Zuj DV, Palmer MA, Malhi GS, Bryant RA, Felmingham KL. Endogenous cortisol reactivity moderates the relationship between fear inhibition to safety signals and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2017; 78:14-21. [PMID: 28135580 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Revised: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) are commonly associated with impairments in extinguishing fear to signals previously associated with danger, and also with inhibiting fear to safety signals. Previous studies indicate that PTSS are associated with low cortisol activity, and cortisol is shown to facilitate fear extinction. Few studies have examined the influence of cortisol reactivity on fear extinction in PTSS. METHOD We used a standardized fear conditioning and extinction paradigm to investigate the relationship between fear extinction and endogenous salivary cortisol activity in participants with high PTSS (n=18), trauma-exposed controls (n=33), and non-trauma-exposed controls (n=27). Skin conductance response (SCR) was used as an index of conditioned responding. Saliva samples were collected at baseline, and 20min post-fear acquisition for basal and reactive cortisol levels, respectively. RESULTS PTSS participants demonstrated a slower rate of extinction learning during the early extinction phase. A moderation analysis revealed that cortisol reactivity was a significant moderator between fear inhibition to the safety signal (CS-) during early extinction and PTSS, but not to the threat signal (CS+). Specifically, this interaction was significant in two ways: (1) participants with elevated cortisol reactivity showed lower PTSS as fear inhibition improved; and (2) participants with low cortisol reactivity showed higher PTSS as fear inhibition improved. CONCLUSION The findings of the present study show that the relationship between fear inhibition and cortisol reactivity is complex, and suggest that cortisol reactivity shapes safety signal learning in PTSS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel V Zuj
- Division of Psychology, School of Medicine, University of Tasmania, Australia.
| | - Matthew A Palmer
- Division of Psychology, School of Medicine, University of Tasmania, Australia
| | - Gin S Malhi
- Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, Australia; Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Australia
| | | | - Kim L Felmingham
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Australia
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47
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Galatzer-Levy IR, Andero R, Sawamura T, Jovanovic T, Papini S, Ressler KJ, Norrholm SD. A cross species study of heterogeneity in fear extinction learning in relation to FKBP5 variation and expression: Implications for the acute treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropharmacology 2017; 116:188-195. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Revised: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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48
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Hartmann J, Dedic N, Pöhlmann ML, Häusl A, Karst H, Engelhardt C, Westerholz S, Wagner KV, Labermaier C, Hoeijmakers L, Kertokarijo M, Chen A, Joëls M, Deussing JM, Schmidt MV. Forebrain glutamatergic, but not GABAergic, neurons mediate anxiogenic effects of the glucocorticoid receptor. Mol Psychiatry 2017; 22:466-475. [PMID: 27240530 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2016.87] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Revised: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Anxiety disorders constitute a major disease and social burden worldwide; however, many questions concerning the underlying molecular mechanisms still remain open. Besides the involvement of the major excitatory (glutamate) and inhibitory (gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)) neurotransmitter circuits in anxiety disorders, the stress system has been directly implicated in the pathophysiology of these complex mental illnesses. The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is the major receptor for the stress hormone cortisol (corticosterone in rodents) and is widely expressed in excitatory and inhibitory neurons, as well as in glial cells. However, currently it is unknown which of these cell populations mediate GR actions that eventually regulate fear- and anxiety-related behaviors. In order to address this question, we generated mice lacking the receptor specifically in forebrain glutamatergic or GABAergic neurons by breeding GRflox/flox mice to Nex-Cre or Dlx5/6-Cre mice, respectively. GR deletion specifically in glutamatergic, but not in GABAergic, neurons induced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis hyperactivity and reduced fear- and anxiety-related behavior. This was paralleled by reduced GR-dependent electrophysiological responses in the basolateral amygdala (BLA). Importantly, viral-mediated GR deletion additionally showed that fear expression, but not anxiety, is regulated by GRs in glutamatergic neurons of the BLA. This suggests that pathological anxiety likely results from altered GR signaling in glutamatergic circuits of several forebrain regions, while modulation of fear-related behavior can largely be ascribed to GR signaling in glutamatergic neurons of the BLA. Collectively, our results reveal a major contribution of GRs in the brain's key excitatory, but not inhibitory, neurotransmitter system in the regulation of fear and anxiety behaviors, which is crucial to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Hartmann
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany.,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School and McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA
| | - N Dedic
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - M L Pöhlmann
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - A Häusl
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - H Karst
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, UMC Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - C Engelhardt
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - S Westerholz
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - K V Wagner
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - C Labermaier
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - L Hoeijmakers
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - M Kertokarijo
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - A Chen
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - M Joëls
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, UMC Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - J M Deussing
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - M V Schmidt
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
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de Quervain D, Schwabe L, Roozendaal B. Stress, glucocorticoids and memory: implications for treating fear-related disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci 2016; 18:7-19. [PMID: 27881856 DOI: 10.1038/nrn.2016.155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 310] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid stress hormones are crucially involved in modulating mnemonic processing of emotionally arousing experiences. They enhance the consolidation of new memories, including those that extinguish older memories, but impair the retrieval of information stored in long-term memory. As strong aversive memories lie at the core of several fear-related disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder and phobias, the memory-modulating properties of glucocorticoids have recently become of considerable translational interest. Clinical trials have provided the first evidence that glucocorticoid-based pharmacotherapies aimed at attenuating aversive memories might be helpful in the treatment of fear-related disorders. Here, we review important advances in the understanding of how glucocorticoids mediate stress effects on memory processes, and discuss the translational potential of these new conceptual insights.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique de Quervain
- Transfaculty Research Platform, University of Basel, CH-4055, Basel, Switzerland.,Division of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Basel, CH-4055, Basel, Switzerland.,University Psychiatric Clinics, University of Basel, CH-4012, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Lars Schwabe
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Hamburg, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Benno Roozendaal
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboud University Medical Center, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 EN Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Treatment-refractory posttraumatic stress disorder (TRPTSD): a review and framework for the future. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2016; 70:170-218. [PMID: 26854815 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2016.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Revised: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a serious psychiatric consequence of trauma that occurs in a proportion of individuals exposed to life-threatening events. Trauma-focused psychotherapy is often recommended as first choice for those who do not recover spontaneously. But many individuals require medications. In the US, only paroxetine (PRX) and sertraline (SRT) are FDA approved for PTSD. But response and remission rates with these medications are low, so numerous other pharmacologic interventions have been tried. To date, there has not been a systematic review of the data on what are the best next-step pharmacologic strategies for individuals who fail standard treatments. To that end, we review 168 published trials of medications other than PRX or SRT and provide a detailed analysis of the 88/168 studies that describe alternative pharmacologic interventions in patients refractory to other treatment. We also review clinical factors relevant to treatment-refractory PTSD; the neurobiology of extinction, as well as evidence-based psychotherapy and neuromodulation strategies for this condition.
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