Mutation of an IKK phosphorylation site within the transactivation domain of REL in two patients with B-cell lymphoma enhances REL's in vitro transforming activity

Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cell Differentiation in Cancer: Transcriptional Regulators and Enhanceosome-Mediated Mechanisms

Myeloid-derived Suppressor Cells (MDSCs) are a sub-population of leukocytes that are important for carcinogenesis and cancer immunotherapy. During carcinogenesis or severe infections, inflammatory mediators induce MDSCs via aberrant differentiation of myeloid precursors. Although several transcription factors, including C/EBPβ, STAT3, c-Rel, STAT5, and IRF8, have been reported to regulate MDSC differentiation, none of them are specifically expressed in MDSCs. How these lineage-non-specific transcription factors specify MDSC differentiation in a lineage-specific manner is unclear. The recent discovery of the c-Rel-C/EBPβ enhanceosome in MDSCs may help explain these context-dependent roles. In this review, we examine several transcriptional regulators of MDSC differentiation, and discuss the concept of non-modular regulation of MDSC signature gene expression by transcription factors such as c-Rel and C/EBPß.

Transcription factor NF-κB in a basal metazoan, the sponge, has conserved and unique sequences, activities, and regulation

Herein, we characterize transcription factor NF-κB from the demosponge Amphimedon queenslandica (Aq). Aq-NF-κB is most similar to NF-κB p100/p105 among vertebrate proteins, with an N-terminal DNA-binding domain, a C-terminal Ankyrin (ANK) repeat domain, and a DNA binding-site profile akin to human NF-κB proteins. Like mammalian NF-κB p100, C-terminal truncation allows nuclear translocation of Aq-NF-κB and increases its transcriptional activation activity. Expression of IκB kinases (IKKs) induces proteasome-dependent C-terminal processing of Aq-NF-κB in human cells, and processing requires C-terminal serines in Aq-NF-κB. Unlike NF-κB p100, C-terminal sequences of Aq-NF-κB do not inhibit its DNA-binding activity. Tissue of a black encrusting demosponge contains NF-κB site DNA-binding activity, as well as nuclear and processed NF-κB. Treatment of sponge tissue with LPS increases both DNA-binding activity and processing of NF-κB. A. queenslandica transcriptomes contain homologs to upstream NF-κB pathway components. This is first functional characterization of NF-κB in sponge, the most basal multicellular animal.

The Unsolved Puzzle of c-Rel in B Cell Lymphoma

Aberrant constitutive activation of Rel/NF-κB transcription factors is a hallmark of numerous cancers. Of the five Rel family members, c-Rel has the strongest direct links to tumorigenesis. c-Rel is the only member that can malignantly transform lymphoid cells in vitro. Furthermore, c-Rel is implicated in human B cell lymphoma through the frequent occurrence of REL gene locus gains and amplifications. In normal physiology, high c-Rel expression predominates in the hematopoietic lineage and a diverse range of stimuli can trigger enhanced expression and activation of c-Rel. Both expression and activation of c-Rel are tightly regulated on multiple levels, indicating the necessity to keep its functions under control. In this review we meta-analyze and integrate studies reporting gene locus aberrations to provide an overview on the frequency of REL gains in human B cell lymphoma subtypes, namely follicular lymphoma, diffuse large B cell lymphoma, primary mediastinal B cell lymphoma, and classical Hodgkin lymphoma. We also summarize current knowledge on c-Rel expression and protein localization in these human B cell lymphomas and discuss the co-amplification of BCL11A with REL. In addition, we highlight and illustrate key pathways of c-Rel activation and regulation with a specific focus on B cell biology.

A conserved Toll-like receptor-to-NF-κB signaling pathway in the endangered coral Orbicella faveolata

Herein, we characterize the Toll-like receptor (TLR)-to-NF-κB innate immune pathway of Orbicella faveolata (Of), which is an ecologically important, disease-susceptible, reef-building coral. As compared to human TLRs, the intracellular TIR domain of Of-TLR is most similar to TLR4, and it can interact in vitro with the human TLR4 adapter MYD88. Treatment of O. faveolata tissue with lipopolysaccharide, a ligand for mammalian TLR4, resulted in gene expression changes consistent with NF-κB pathway mobilization. Biochemical and cell-based assays revealed that Of-NF-κB resembles the mammalian non-canonical NF-κB protein p100 in that C-terminal truncation results in translocation of Of-NF-κB to the nucleus and increases its DNA-binding and transcriptional activation activities. Moreover, human IκB kinase (IKK) and Of-IKK can both phosphorylate conserved residues in Of-NF-κB in vitro and induce C-terminal processing of Of-NF-κB in vivo. These results are the first characterization of TLR-to-NF-κB signaling proteins in an endangered coral, and suggest that these corals have conserved innate immune pathways.

NF-κB in Hematological Malignancies

NF-κB (Nuclear Factor Κ-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) transcription factors are critical regulators of immunity, stress response, apoptosis, and differentiation. Molecular defects promoting the constitutive activation of canonical and non-canonical NF-κB signaling pathways contribute to many diseases, including cancer, diabetes, chronic inflammation, and autoimmunity. In the present review, we focus our attention on the mechanisms of NF-κB deregulation in hematological malignancies. Key positive regulators of NF-κB signaling can act as oncogenes that are often prone to chromosomal translocation, amplifications, or activating mutations. Negative regulators of NF-κB have tumor suppressor functions, and are frequently inactivated either by genomic deletions or point mutations. NF-κB activation in tumoral cells is also driven by the microenvironment or chronic signaling that does not rely on genetic alterations.

c-Rel and its many roles in cancer: an old story with new twists

When the genes encoding NF-κB subunits were first isolated, their homology to the previously identified c-Rel proto-oncogene and its viral homologue v-Rel was clear. This provided the first indication that these transcription factors also had a role in cancer. Because of its homology to v-Rel, which transforms chicken B cells together with the important role c-Rel can have as a regulator of B- and T-cell proliferation, most attention has focussed on its role in B-cell lymphomas, where the REL gene is frequently amplified. However, a growing number of reports now indicate that c-Rel has important functions in many solid tumours, although studies in mice suggest it may not always function as an oncogene. Moreover, c-Rel is a critical regulator of fibrosis, which provides an environment for tumour development in many settings. Overall, c-Rel is emerging as a complex regulator of tumorigenesis, and there is still much to learn about its functions in human malignancies and the response to cancer therapies.

The Regulation of NF-κB Subunits by Phosphorylation

The NF-κB transcription factor is the master regulator of the inflammatory response and is essential for the homeostasis of the immune system. NF-κB regulates the transcription of genes that control inflammation, immune cell development, cell cycle, proliferation, and cell death. The fundamental role that NF-κB plays in key physiological processes makes it an important factor in determining health and disease. The importance of NF-κB in tissue homeostasis and immunity has frustrated therapeutic approaches aimed at inhibiting NF-κB activation. However, significant research efforts have revealed the crucial contribution of NF-κB phosphorylation to controlling NF-κB directed transactivation. Importantly, NF-κB phosphorylation controls transcription in a gene-specific manner, offering new opportunities to selectively target NF-κB for therapeutic benefit. This review will focus on the phosphorylation of the NF-κB subunits and the impact on NF-κB function.

The cnidarian origin of the proto-oncogenes NF-κB/STAT and WNT-like oncogenic pathway drives the ctenophores (Review)

The cell survival pathways of the diploblastic early multicellular eukaryotic hosts contain and operate the molecular machinery resembling those of malignantly transformed individual cells of highly advanced multicellular hosts (including Homo). In the present review, the STAT/NF-κB pathway of the cnidarian Nematostella vectensis is compared with that of human tumors (malignant lymphomas, including Reed-Sternberg cells) pointing out similarities, including possible viral initiation in both cases. In the ctenophore genome and proteome, β-catenin gains intranuclear advantages due to a physiologically weak destructive complex in the cytoplasm, and lack of natural inhibitors (the dickkopfs). Thus, a scenario similar to what tumor cells initiate and achieve is presented through several constitutive loss-of-function type mutations in the destructive complex and in the elimination of inhibitors. Vice versa, malignantly transformed individual cells of advanced multicellular hosts assume pheno-genotypic resemblance to cells of unicellular or early multicellular hosts, and presumably to their ancient predecessors, by returning to the semblance of immortality and to the resumption of the state of high degree of resistance to physicochemical insults. Human leukemogenic and oncogenic pathways are presented for comparisons. The supreme bioengineers RNA/DNA complex encoded both the malignantly transformed immortal cell and the human cerebral cortex. The former generates molecules for the immortality of cellular life in the Universe. The latter invents the inhibitors of the process in order to gain control over it.

Signaling mediated by the NF-κB sub-units NF-κB1, NF-κB2 and c-Rel differentially regulate Helicobacter felis-induced gastric carcinogenesis in C57BL/6 mice

The classical nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) signaling pathway has been shown to be important in a number of models of inflammation-associated cancer. In a mouse model of Helicobacter-induced gastric cancer, impairment of classical NF-κB signaling in the gastric epithelium led to the development of increased preneoplastic pathology, however the role of specific NF-κB proteins in Helicobacter-associated gastric cancer development remains poorly understood. To investigate this C57BL/6, Nfkb1^−/−, Nfkb2^−/− and c-Rel^−/− mice were infected with Helicobacter felis for 6 weeks or 12 months. Bacterial colonization, gastric atrophy and preneoplastic changes were assessed histologically and cytokine expression was assessed by qPCR. Nfkb1^−/− mice developed spontaneous gastric atrophy when maintained for 12 months in conventional animal house conditions. They also developed more pronounced gastric atrophy after short-term H. felis colonization with a similar extent of preneoplasia to wild-type (WT) mice after 12 months. c-Rel^−/− mice developed a similar degree of gastric atrophy to WT mice; 3 of 6 of these animals also developed lymphoproliferative lesions after 12 months of infection. Nfkb2^−/− mice developed minimal gastric epithelial pathology even 12 months after H. felis infection. These findings demonstrate that NF-κB1- and NF-κB2-mediated signaling pathways differentially regulate the epithelial consequences of H. felis infection in the stomach, while c-Rel-mediated signaling also appears to modulate the risk of lymphomagenesis in gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue.

c-Rel downregulation affects cell cycle progression of human keratinocytes

The c-Rel protein, a member of the NF-κB transcription factor family, exerts unique and distinctive functions in various cell types. Although c-Rel is expressed in human epidermis, its functions in keratinocytes are poorly understood. Our small interfering RNA-based approach of c-Rel silencing in HaCaT keratinocytes induced altered cell morphology toward a spindle-shaped appearance. In addition, c-Rel downregulation resulted in increased apoptosis and significantly reduced proliferation towing to G2/M cell cycle delay, concomitant aberrant mitotic spindle formation, and induction of phospho-aurora A(Thr288). The relevance of c-Rel in epithelial carcinogenesis was further supported by detection of c-Rel expression in squamous cell carcinomas of the skin. Our studies indicate that c-Rel is a key regulator of cell fate decisions in keratinocytes such as cell growth and death and may have a role in epidermal carcinogenesis.

CluGene: A Bioinformatics Framework for the Identification of Co-Localized, Co-Expressed and Co-Regulated Genes Aimed at the Investigation of Transcriptional Regulatory Networks from High-Throughput Expression Data

The full understanding of the mechanisms underlying transcriptional regulatory networks requires unravelling of complex causal relationships. Genome high-throughput technologies produce a huge amount of information pertaining gene expression and regulation; however, the complexity of the available data is often overwhelming and tools are needed to extract and organize the relevant information. This work starts from the assumption that the observation of co-occurrent events (in particular co-localization, co-expression and co-regulation) may provide a powerful starting point to begin unravelling transcriptional regulatory networks. Co-expressed genes often imply shared functional pathways; co-expressed and functionally related genes are often co-localized, too; moreover, co-expressed and co-localized genes are also potential targets for co-regulation; finally, co-regulation seems more frequent for genes mapped to proximal chromosome regions. Despite the recognized importance of analysing co-occurrent events, no bioinformatics solution allowing the simultaneous analysis of co-expression, co-localization and co-regulation is currently available. Our work resulted in developing and valuating CluGene, a software providing tools to analyze multiple types of co-occurrences within a single interactive environment allowing the interactive investigation of combined co-expression, co-localization and co-regulation of genes. The use of CluGene will enhance the power of testing hypothesis and experimental approaches aimed at unravelling transcriptional regulatory networks. The software is freely available at http://bioinfolab.unipg.it/.

The c-Rel Transcription Factor in Development and Disease

c-Rel is a member of the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) transcription factor family. Unlike other NF-κB proteins that are expressed in a variety of cell types, high levels of c-Rel expression are found primarily in B and T cells, with many c-Rel target genes involved in lymphoid cell growth and survival. In addition to c-Rel playing a major role in mammalian B and T cell function, the human c-rel gene (REL) is a susceptibility locus for certain autoimmune diseases such as arthritis, psoriasis, and celiac disease. The REL locus is also frequently altered (amplified, mutated, rearranged), and expression of REL is increased in a variety of B and T cell malignancies and, to a lesser extent, in other cancer types. Thus, agents that modulate REL activity may have therapeutic benefits for certain human cancers and chronic inflammatory diseases.

Roles of c-Rel signalling in inflammation and disease

Nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) is a dimeric transcription factor comprised of five family members RelA (p65), RelB, c-Rel, p50 and p52. NFκB signalling is complex and controls a myriad of normal cellular functions. However, constitutive or aberrant activation of this pathway is associated with disease progression and cancer in multiple organs. The diverse array of biological responses is modulated by many factors, including the activating stimulus, recruitment of co-regulatory molecules, consensus DNA binding sequence, dimer composition and post-translational modifications. Each subunit has very different biological functions and in the context of disease the individual subunits forming the NFκB dimer can have a profound effect, causing a shift in the balance from normal to pathogenic signalling. Here we discuss the role of c-Rel dependant signalling in normal physiology and its contribution to disease both inside and outside of the immune system.

The diverse and complex roles of NF-κB subunits in cancer

It is only recently that the full importance of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signalling to cancer development has been understood. Although much attention has focused on the upstream pathways leading to NF-κB activation, it is now becoming clear that the inhibitor of NF-κB kinases (IKKs), which regulate NF-κB activation, have many independent functions in tissue homeostasis and normal immune function that could compromise the clinical utility of IKK inhibitors. Therefore, if the NF-κB pathway is to be properly exploited as a target for both anticancer and anti-inflammatory drugs, it is appropriate to reconsider the complex roles of the individual NF-κB subunits.

Specification of DNA binding activity of NF-kappaB proteins

Nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) is a pleiotropic mediator of inducible and specific gene regulation involving diverse biological activities including immune response, inflammation, cell proliferation, and death. The fine-tuning of the NF-kappaB DNA binding activity is essential for its fundamental function as a transcription factor. An increasing body of literature illustrates that this process can be elegantly and specifically controlled at multiple levels by different protein subsets. In particular, the recent identification of a non-Rel subunit of NF-kappaB itself provides a new way to understand the selective high-affinity DNA binding specificity of NF-kappaB conferred by a synergistic interaction within the whole complex. Here, we review the mechanism of the specification of DNA binding activity of NF-kappaB complexes, one of the most important aspects of NF-kappaB transcriptional control.

Histone acetyltransferase p300 is a coactivator for transcription factor REL and is C-terminally truncated in the human diffuse large B-cell lymphoma cell line RC-K8

Human c-Rel (REL) is a member of the NF-kappaB family of transcription factors. REL's normal physiological role is in the regulation of B-cell proliferation and survival. The REL gene is amplified in many human B-cell lymphomas and overexpression of REL can transform chicken lymphoid cells. In this report, histone acetyltransferase p300 enhanced REL-induced transactivation and interacted with REL both in vitro and in REL-transformed chicken spleen cells and the B-lymphoma cell line RC-K8, in which REL is constitutively active and required for proliferation. However, due to a deletion in the EP300 locus, only a C-terminally truncated form of p300 is expressed in RC-K8 cells. These results suggest a role for p300 in REL-mediated oncogenic activity in B lymphoma.

Overexpression of an activated REL mutant enhances the transformed state of the human B-lymphoma BJAB cell line and alters its gene expression profile

The human REL proto-oncogene encodes a transcription factor in the NF-κB family. Overexpression of REL is acutely transforming in chicken lymphoid cells, but has not been shown to transform any mammalian lymphoid cell type. In this report, we show that overexpression of a highly transforming mutant of REL (RELΔTAD1) increases the oncogenic properties of the human B-cell lymphoma BJAB cell line, as demonstrated by increased colony formation in soft agar, tumor formation in SCID mice, and adhesion. BJAB-RELΔTAD1 cells also show decreased activation of caspase in response to doxorubicin. BJAB-RELΔTAD1 cells have increased levels of active nuclear REL protein as determined by immunofluorescence, subcellular fractionation, and electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Overexpression of RELΔTAD1 in BJAB cells has transformed the gene expression profile of BJAB cells from that of a germinal center B-cell subtype of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (GCB-DLBCL) to that of an activated B-cell subtype (ABC-DLBCL), as evidenced by increased expression of many ABC-defining mRNAs. Up-regulated genes in BJAB-RELΔTAD1 cells include several NF-κB targets that encode proteins previously implicated in B-cell development or oncogenesis, including BCL2, IRF4, CD40 and VCAM1. The cell system we describe here may be valuable for further characterizing the molecular details of REL-induced lymphoma in humans.

CAPERalpha is a novel Rel-TAD-interacting factor that inhibits lymphocyte transformation by the potent Rel/NF-kappaB oncoprotein v-Rel

The Rel/NF-kappaB transcription factors are constitutively activated in many human cancers. The Rel proteins in this family are implicated in leukemia/lymphomagenesis, but the mechanism is not completely understood. Previous studies showed that the transcription activation domains (TADs) of the viral oncoprotein v-Rel and its cellular Rel/NF-kappaB homologues c-Rel and RelA are key determinants of their different transforming activities in primary lymphocytes. Substitution of a Rel TAD for that of RelA conferred a strong transforming phenotype upon RelA, which otherwise failed to transform cells. To gain insights into protein interactions that influence cell transformation by the Rel TADs, we identified factors that interact with the TAD of v-Rel, the most oncogenic member of the Rel/NF-kappaB family. We report that the coactivator for transcription factors AP-1 and estrogen receptors, CAPERalpha, interacts with the v-Rel TAD and potently synergizes v-Rel-mediated transactivation. Importantly, coexpression of CAPERalpha markedly reduced and delayed v-Rel's transforming activity in primary lymphocytes, whereas a dominant-negative mutant enhanced the kinetics of v-Rel-mediated transformation. Furthermore, small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of CAPERalpha in v-Rel-transformed lymphocytes significantly enhanced colony formation in soft agar. Since the potency of Rel-mediated transactivation is an important determinant of lymphocyte transformation, as is Rel's ability to induce transcriptional repression, these data suggest that CAPERalpha's interaction with the Rel TAD could modulate Rel/NF-kappaB's transforming activity by facilitating expression or dampening repression of specific gene subsets important for oncogenesis. Overall, this study identifies CAPERalpha as a new transcriptional coregulator for v-Rel and reveals an important role in modulating Rel's oncogenic activity.

Deletion analysis and alternative splicing define a transactivation inhibitory domain in human oncoprotein REL

Misregulation of REL, a nuclear factor-kappaB family transcription factor, has been implicated in several human lymphoid malignancies. REL has a conserved N-terminal DNA-binding/dimerization domain called the Rel homology domain (RHD) and a C-terminal transactivation domain (TAD). Here, we define the sequences (amino acids (aa) 323-422) between the RHD and TAD as a REL inhibitory domain (RID) because deletion of these sequences increases both REL transactivation and DNA binding. Furthermore, we have characterized two REL mRNA splice variants that encode proteins with alterations near RID: one lacking exon 9 sequences (aa 308-330; RELDelta9) and one with an exonized Alu fragment insertion of 32 aa after aa 307 (REL+Alu). Deletion of RID or exon 9-encoded sequences increases transactivation by GAL4-REL by approximately threefold. Moreover, deletion of RID or exon 9 sequences increases transactivation by full-length REL from certain kappaB site-containing promoters and increases DNA binding by REL. Deletion of RID does not affect REL's ability to transform chicken spleen cells. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analysis of mRNA from both primary lymphoma samples and several transformed tissue culture cell lines indicates that the RELDelta9 splice variant is preferentially expressed in lymphoma, suggesting that the REL transcript lacking exon 9 could serve as a marker for certain types of lymphoid tumors.

Alternative splicing in the NF-kappaB signaling pathway

Activation of transcription factor NF-kappaB can affect the expression of several hundred genes, many of which are involved in inflammation and immunity. The proper NF-kappaB transcriptional response is primarily regulated by post-translational modification of NF-kappaB signaling constituents. Herein, we review the accumulating evidence suggesting that alternative splicing of NF-kappaB signaling components is another means of controlling NF-kappaB signaling. Several alternative splicing events in both the tumor necrosis factor and Toll/interleukin-1 NF-kappaB signaling pathways can inhibit the NF-kappaB response, whereas others enhance NF-kappaB signaling. Alternative splicing of mRNAs encoding some NF-kappaB signaling components can be induced by prolonged exposure to an NF-kappaB-activating signal, such as lipopolysaccharide, suggesting a mechanism for negative feedback to dampen excessive NF-kappaB signaling. Moreover, some NF-kappaB alternative splicing events appear to be specific for certain diseases, and could serve as therapeutic targets or biomarkers.

The role of NF-kappaB in lymphoid malignancies

Nuclear Factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) transcription factors are central regulators of lymphocyte proliferation, survival and development. Although normally subject to tight control, constitutive activation of NF-kappaB promotes inappropriate lymphocyte survival and proliferation, and is recognised as key pathological feature in various lymphoid malignancies. Inhibition of NF-kappaB may be an attractive therapeutic approach in these diseases. This review focuses on the mechanisms and functional consequences of NF-kappaB activation in lymphoid malignancies and potential therapeutic strategies for inhibition of NF-kappaB.

Ser484 and Ser494 in REL are the major sites of IKK phosphorylation in vitro: evidence that IKK does not directly enhance GAL4-REL transactivation

Human c-Rel (REL) is a member of the NF-kappa B family of transcription factors, and one of its primary physiological roles is in the regulation of B-cell proliferation and survival. Although REL is primarily regulated by cytoplasmic-nuclear translocation through interaction with I kappa B inhibitors, REL also undergoes several posttranslational modifications that have been proposed to modulate its transcriptional activation activity. For example, phosphorylation of C-terminal sequences of REL has been proposed to increase its transactivation activity. In this report, we have used immune complex kinase assays to identify Ser484 and Ser494 as the primary sites of IKK alpha- and IKK beta-mediated in vitro phosphorylation in the C-terminal transactivation domain of REL. However, in cotransfection studies in A293 cells we have failed to detect IKK beta-mediated phosphorylation of these sites on REL in vivo, nor does IKK beta appear to interact with REL in these cells. Ser-to-Ala mutation of Ser484 and Ser494 does not affect IKK's ability to enhance GAL4-REL transactivation in reporter gene assays in A293 cells. We also show that the previously reported effects of overexpressed IKK and tumor necrosis factor treatment on GAL4-REL transactivation are due to IKK-mediated activation of the endogenous NF-kappa B pathway, which increases transcription from kappa B sites in the promoter of a commonly used GAL4 expression vector. Taken together, these results do not support a role for IKK-mediated phosphorylation as means for regulating the activity of REL in vivo.

An optimal range of transcription potency is necessary for efficient cell transformation by c-Rel to ensure optimal nuclear localization and gene-specific activation

c-Rel is overexpressed in several B-cell lymphomas and c-rel gene overexpression can transform primary chicken lymphoid cells and induce tumors in animals. Although c-Rel is generally a stronger transcriptional activator than its viral derivative v-Rel, its oncogenic activity is significantly weaker. Among the mutations acquired during c-Rel's evolution into v-Rel are deletion of c-Rel's transactivation domain 2 (cTAD2) and mutations in cTAD1. Given the critical role of the Rel TADs in cell transformation, we investigated how mutations in c-Rel's cTAD1 and cTAD2 contribute to its oncogenicity and that of v-Rel. Mutations in cTAD2 noticeably increased c-Rel's transforming activity by promoting its nuclear localization and gene-specific transactivation, despite an overall decrease in kappaB site-dependent transactivation potency. Conversely, substitution of vTAD by cTAD1 increased v-Rel's transactivation and transforming efficiencies, whereas its substitution by the stronger cTAD2 compromised activation of mip-1beta but not irf-4 and was detrimental to cell transformation. These results suggest that the Rel TADs differentially contribute to gene-specific activation and that an optimal range of transcription potency is necessary for efficient transformation. These findings may have important implications for understanding how Rel TAD mutations can lead to a more oncogenic phenotype.