Expression and purification of a single-chain Type IV restriction enzyme Eco94GmrSD and determination of its substrate preference

West African-South American pandemic Vibrio cholerae encodes multiple distinct phage defence systems

Our understanding of the factors underlying the evolutionary success of different lineages of pandemic Vibrio cholerae remains incomplete. The West African-South American (WASA) lineage of V. cholerae, responsible for the 1991-2001 Latin American cholera epidemic, is defined by two unique genetic signatures. Here we show that these signatures encode multiple distinct anti-phage defence systems. Firstly, the WASA-1 prophage encodes an abortive-infection system, WonAB, that renders the lineage resistant to the major predatory vibriophage ICP1, which, alongside other phages, is thought to restrict cholera epidemics. Secondly, a unique set of genes on the Vibrio seventh pandemic island II encodes an unusual modification-dependent restriction system targeting phages with modified genomes, and a previously undescribed member of the Shedu defence family that defends against vibriophage X29. We propose that these anti-phage defence systems likely contributed to the success of a major epidemic lineage of the ongoing seventh cholera pandemic.

Molecular basis of the phosphorothioation-sensing antiphage defense system IscS-DndBCDE-DndI

Phosphorothioation serves as a DNA backbone modification mechanism, wherein a sulfur atom substitutes the nonbridging oxygen atom within the phosphodiester, facilitated by the gene products of dndABCDE or sspABCD. The combination of dndABCDE with dndFGH forms a bona fide defense system, where the DndFGH protein complex exhibits DNA nickase and DNA translocase activities to prevent phage invasion. In this study, we identified that dndI, co-transcribed with dndFGH, can independently couple with iscS-dndBCDE as an anti-phage defense system. Moreover, we resolved the crystal structure of DndI from Salmonella at a resolution of 3.10 Å. We discovered that its residue Y25, residing within a hydrophobic region of DndI, is involved in phosphorothioate (PT) sensing. Upon sensing PT modifications at 5'-GPSAAC-3'/5'-GPSTTC-3', the ATPase activity of DndI is stimulated, which subsequently triggers a conformational transition, facilitating the dissociation of DndI from self-DNA, thereby allowing DndI to avoid cleaving self-DNA while restricting PT-deficient phage DNA. This research broadens the knowledge of the mechanistic diversity underlying PT-based defense systems and highlights their complexity in the course of evolution.

A Vibrio cholerae Type IV restriction system targets glucosylated 5-hydroxymethylcytosine to protect against phage infection

A major challenge faced by Vibrio cholerae is constant predation by bacteriophage (phage) in aquatic reservoirs and during infection of human hosts. To overcome phage predation, V. cholerae has acquired and/or evolved a myriad of phage defense systems. Although several novel defense systems have been discovered, we hypothesized that more were encoded in V. cholerae given the low diversity of phages that have been isolated, which infect this species. Using a V. cholerae genomic library, we identified a Type IV restriction system consisting of two genes within a 16-kB region of the Vibrio pathogenicity island-2, which we name TgvA and TgvB (Type I-embedded gmrSD-like system of VPI-2). We show that both TgvA and TgvB are required for defense against T2, T4, and T6 by targeting glucosylated 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC). T2 or T4 phages that lose the glucose modifications are resistant to TgvAB defense but exhibit a significant evolutionary tradeoff, becoming susceptible to other Type IV restriction systems that target unglucosylated 5hmC. We also show that the Type I restriction-modification system that embeds the tgvAB genes protects against phage T3, secΦ18, secΦ27, and λ, suggesting that this region is a phage defense island. Our study uncovers a novel Type IV restriction system in V. cholerae, increasing our understanding of the evolution and ecology of V. cholerae, while highlighting the evolutionary interplay between restriction systems and phage genome modification.IMPORTANCEBacteria are constantly being predated by bacteriophage (phage). To counteract this predation, bacteria have evolved a myriad of defense systems. Some of these systems specifically digest infecting phage by recognizing unique base modifications present on the phage DNA. In this study, we discover a Type IV restriction system encoded in V. cholerae, which we name TgvAB, and demonstrate it recognizes and restricts phage that have 5-hydroxymethylcytosine glucosylated DNA. Moreover, the evolution of resistance to TgvAB render phage susceptible to other Type IV restriction systems, demonstrating a significant evolutionary tradeoff. These results enhance our understanding of the evolution of V. cholerae and more broadly how bacteria evade phage predation.

Vibrio cholerae pathogenicity island 2 encodes two distinct types of restriction systems

In response to predation by bacteriophages and invasion by other mobile genetic elements such as plasmids, bacteria have evolved specialized defense systems that are often clustered together on genomic islands. The O1 El Tor strains of Vibrio cholerae responsible for the ongoing seventh cholera pandemic (7PET) contain a characteristic set of genomic islands involved in host colonization and disease, many of which contain defense systems. Notably, Vibrio pathogenicity island 2 contains several characterized defense systems as well as a putative type I restriction-modification (T1RM) system, which, interestingly, is interrupted by two genes of unknown function. Here, we demonstrate that the T1RM system is active, methylates the host genomes of a representative set of 7PET strains, and identify a specific recognition sequence that targets non-methylated plasmids for restriction. We go on to show that the two genes embedded within the T1RM system encode a novel two-protein modification-dependent restriction system related to the GmrSD family of type IV restriction enzymes. Indeed, we show that this system has potent anti-phage activity against diverse members of the Tevenvirinae, a subfamily of bacteriophages with hypermodified genomes. Taken together, these results expand our understanding of how this highly conserved genomic island contributes to the defense of pandemic V. cholerae against foreign DNA.

IMPORTANCE

Defense systems are immunity systems that allow bacteria to counter the threat posed by bacteriophages and other mobile genetic elements. Although these systems are numerous and highly diverse, the most common types are restriction enzymes that can specifically recognize and degrade non-self DNA. Here, we show that the Vibrio pathogenicity island 2, present in the pathogen Vibrio cholerae, encodes two types of restriction systems that use distinct mechanisms to sense non-self DNA. The first system is a classical Type I restriction-modification system, and the second is a novel modification-dependent type IV restriction system that recognizes hypermodified cytosines. Interestingly, these systems are embedded within each other, suggesting that they are complementary to each other by targeting both modified and non-modified phages.

Virus-encoded glycosyltransferases hypermodify DNA with diverse glycans

Enzymatic modification of DNA nucleobases can coordinate gene expression, nuclease protection, or mutagenesis. We recently discovered a clade of phage-specific cytosine methyltransferase (MT) and 5-methylpyrimidine dioxygenase (5mYOX) enzymes that produce 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) as a precursor for enzymatic hypermodifications on viral genomes. Here, we identify phage MT- and 5mYOX-associated glycosyltransferases (GTs) that catalyze linkage of diverse sugars to 5hmC nucleobase substrates. Metavirome mining revealed thousands of biosynthetic gene clusters containing enzymes with predicted roles in cytosine sugar hypermodification. We developed a platform for high-throughput screening of GT-containing pathways, relying on the Escherichia coli metabolome as a substrate pool. We successfully reconstituted several pathways and isolated diverse sugar modifications appended to cytosine, including mono-, di-, or tri-saccharides comprised of hexoses, N-acetylhexosamines, or heptose. These findings expand our knowledge of hypermodifications on nucleic acids and the origins of corresponding sugar-installing enzymes.

An enterococcal phage protein inhibits type IV restriction enzymes involved in antiphage defense

The prevalence of multidrug resistant (MDR) bacterial infections continues to rise as the development of antibiotics needed to combat these infections remains stagnant. MDR enterococci are a major contributor to this crisis. A potential therapeutic approach for combating MDR enterococci is bacteriophage (phage) therapy, which uses lytic viruses to infect and kill pathogenic bacteria. While phages that lyse some strains of MDR enterococci have been identified, other strains display high levels of resistance and the mechanisms underlying this resistance are poorly defined. Here, we use a CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) screen to identify a genetic locus found on a mobilizable plasmid from Enterococcus faecalis involved in phage resistance. This locus encodes a putative serine recombinase followed by a Type IV restriction enzyme (TIV-RE) that we show restricts the replication of phage phi47 in vancomycin-resistant E. faecalis. We further find that phi47 evolves to overcome restriction by acquiring a missense mutation in a TIV-RE inhibitor protein. We show that this inhibitor, termed type IV restriction inhibiting factor A (tifA), binds and inactivates diverse TIV-REs. Overall, our findings advance our understanding of phage defense in drug-resistant E. faecalis and provide mechanistic insight into how phages evolve to overcome antiphage defense systems.

An enterococcal phage protein broadly inhibits type IV restriction enzymes involved in antiphage defense

The prevalence of multidrug resistant (MDR) bacterial infections continues to rise as the development of antibiotics needed to combat these infections remains stagnant. MDR enterococci are a major contributor to this crisis. A potential therapeutic approach for combating MDR enterococci is bacteriophage (phage) therapy, which uses lytic viruses to infect and kill pathogenic bacteria. While phages that lyse some strains of MDR enterococci have been identified, other strains display high levels of resistance and the mechanisms underlying this resistance are poorly defined. Here, we use a CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) screen to identify a genetic locus found on a mobilizable plasmid from Enterococcus faecalis involved in phage resistance. This locus encodes a putative serine recombinase followed by a Type IV restriction enzyme (TIV-RE) that we show restricts the replication of phage phi47 in E. faecalis. We further find that phi47 evolves to overcome restriction by acquiring a missense mutation in a TIV-RE inhibitor protein. We show that this inhibitor, termed type IV restriction inhibiting factor A (tifA), binds and inactivates diverse TIV-REs. Overall, our findings advance our understanding of phage defense in drug-resistant E. faecalis and provide mechanistic insight into how phages evolve to overcome antiphage defense systems.

A nuclease domain fused to the Snf2 helicase confers antiphage defence in coral-associated Halomonas meridiana

The coral reef microbiome plays a vital role in the health and resilience of reefs. Previous studies have examined phage therapy for coral pathogens and for modifying the coral reef microbiome, but defence systems against coral-associated bacteria have received limited attention. Phage defence systems play a crucial role in helping bacteria fight phage infections. In this study, we characterized a new defence system, Hma (HmaA-HmaB-HmaC), in the coral-associated Halomonas meridiana derived from the scleractinian coral Galaxea fascicularis. The Swi2/Snf2 helicase HmaA with a C-terminal nuclease domain exhibits antiviral activity against Escherichia phage T4. Mutation analysis revealed the nickase activity of the nuclease domain (belonging to PDD/EXK superfamily) of HmaA is essential in phage defence. Additionally, HmaA homologues are present in ~1000 bacterial and archaeal genomes. The high frequency of HmaA helicase in Halomonas strains indicates the widespread presence of these phage defence systems, while the insertion of defence genes in the hma region confirms the existence of a defence gene insertion hotspot. These findings offer insights into the diversity of phage defence systems in coral-associated bacteria and these diverse defence systems can be further applied into designing probiotics with high-phage resistance.

The binding affinity-dependent inhibition of cell growth and viability by DNA sulfur-binding domains

Increasing evidence suggests that DNA phosphorothioate (PT) modification serves several purposes in the bacterial host, and some restriction enzymes specifically target PT-DNA. PT-dependent restriction enzymes (PDREs) bind PT-DNA through their DNA sulfur binding domain (SBD) with dissociation constants (KD) of 5 nM~1 μM. Here, we report that SprMcrA, a PDRE, failed to dissociate from PT-DNA after cleavage due to high binding affinity, resulting in low DNA cleavage efficiency. Expression of SBDs in Escherichia coli cells with PT modification induced a drastic loss of cell viability at 25°C when both DNA strands of a PT site were bound, with one SBD on each DNA strand. However, at this temperature, SBD binding to only one PT DNA strand elicited a severe growth lag rather than lethality. This cell growth inhibition phenotype was alleviated by raising the growth temperature. An in vitro assay mimicking DNA replication and RNA transcription demonstrated that the bound SBD hindered the synthesis of new DNA and RNA when using PT-DNA as the template. Our findings suggest that DNA modification-targeting proteins might regulate cellular processes involved in DNA metabolism in addition to being components of restriction-modification systems and epigenetic readers.

A Vibrio cholerae Type IV restriction system targets glucosylated 5-hydroxyl methyl cytosine to protect against phage infection

A major challenge faced by Vibrio cholerae is constant predation by bacteriophage (phage) in aquatic reservoirs and during infection of human hosts. To overcome phage predation, V. cholerae has evolved a myriad of phage defense systems. Although several novel defense systems have been discovered, we hypothesized more were encoded in V. cholerae given the relative paucity of phage that have been isolated which infect this species. Using a V. cholerae genomic library, we identified a Type IV restriction system consisting of two genes within a 16kB region of the Vibrio pathogenicity island-2 that we name TgvA and TgvB (Type I-embedded gmrSD-like system of VPI-2). We show that both TgvA and TgvB are required for defense against T2, T4, and T6 by targeting glucosylated 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC). T2 or T4 phages that lose the glucose modification are resistant to TgvAB defense but exhibit a significant evolutionary tradeoff becoming susceptible to other Type IV restriction systems that target unglucosylated 5hmC. We show that additional phage defense genes are encoded in VPI-2 that protect against other phage like T3, secΦ18, secΦ27 and λ. Our study uncovers a novel Type IV restriction system in V. cholerae, increasing our understanding of the evolution and ecology of V. cholerae while highlighting the evolutionary interplay between restriction systems and phage genome modification.

The phage defence island of a multidrug resistant plasmid uses both BREX and type IV restriction for complementary protection from viruses

Bacteria have evolved a multitude of systems to prevent invasion by bacteriophages and other mobile genetic elements. Comparative genomics suggests that genes encoding bacterial defence mechanisms are often clustered in 'defence islands', providing a concerted level of protection against a wider range of attackers. However, there is a comparative paucity of information on functional interplay between multiple defence systems. Here, we have functionally characterised a defence island from a multidrug resistant plasmid of the emerging pathogen Escherichia fergusonii. Using a suite of thirty environmentally-isolated coliphages, we demonstrate multi-layered and robust phage protection provided by a plasmid-encoded defence island that expresses both a type I BREX system and the novel GmrSD-family type IV DNA modification-dependent restriction enzyme, BrxU. We present the structure of BrxU to 2.12 Å, the first structure of the GmrSD family of enzymes, and show that BrxU can utilise all common nucleotides and a wide selection of metals to cleave a range of modified DNAs. Additionally, BrxU undergoes a multi-step reaction cycle instigated by an unexpected ATP-dependent shift from an intertwined dimer to monomers. This direct evidence that bacterial defence islands can mediate complementary layers of phage protection enhances our understanding of the ever-expanding nature of phage-bacterial interactions.

Characterization of BisI Homologs

BisI is a sequence-specific and 5-methylcytosine (m5C)-dependent restriction endonuclease (REase), that cleaves the modified DNA sequence Gm5CNGC (G indicates that the cytosine opposite to G is modified). We expressed and purified a number of BisI homologs from sequenced bacterial genomes and used Illumina sequencing to determine the Pam7902I (Esp638I-like) cleavage sites in phage Xp12 DNA. One BisI homolog KpnW2I is EcoBLMcrX-like, cleaving GCNGC/RCNGY/RCNRC sites with m5C. We also cloned and expressed three BisI homologs from metagenome sequences derived from thermophilic sources. One enzyme EsaTMI is active at 37 to 65°C. EsaHLI cleaves GCNGC sites with three to four m5C and is active up to 50°C. In addition, we determined the number and position of m5C in BisI sites for efficient cleavage. BisI cleavage efficiency of GCNGC site is as following: Gm5CNGC (two internal m5C) > Gm5CNGC (one internal m5C) > GCNGm5C (one external m5C) > > GCNGC (unmodified). Three or four m5C in GCNGC site also supports BisI cleavage although partial inhibition was observed on duplex oligos with four m5C. BisI can be used to partially cleave a desired GCNGC site targeted with a complementary oligonucleotide (hemi-methylated). The m5C-dependent BisI variants will be useful for epigenetic research.

Expression of Human ACE2 N-terminal Domain, Part of the Receptor for SARS-CoV-2, in Fusion With Maltose-Binding Protein, E. coli Ribonuclease I and Human RNase A

The SARS-CoV-2 viral genome contains a positive-strand single-stranded RNA of ∼30 kb. Human ACE2 protein is the receptor for SARS-CoV-2 virus attachment and infection. We propose to use ribonucleases (RNases) as antiviral agents to destroy the viral genome in vitro. In the virions, the RNA is protected by viral capsid proteins, membrane proteins, and nucleocapsid proteins. To utilize RNases as antiviral strategy, we set out to construct RNase fusion with human ACE2 receptor N-terminal domain (ACE2NTD). We expressed six proteins in E. coli cells: (1) MBP-ACE2NTD, (2) ACE2NTD-GFP, (3) RNase I (6×His), (4) RNase III (6×His), (5) RNase I-ACE2NTD (6×His), and (6) human RNase A-ACE2NTD (6×His). We evaluated fusion expression in different E. coli strains, partially purified MBP-ACE2NTD protein from the soluble fraction of bacterial cell lysate, and refolded MBP-ACE2NTD protein from inclusion body. The engineered RNase I-ACE2NTD (6×His) and hRNase A-ACE2NTD (6×His) fusions are active in cleaving SARS-CoV-2 RNA fragment in vitro. The recombinant RNase I (6×His) and RNase III (6×His) are active in cleaving RNA and dsRNA in test tube. This study provides a proof-of-concept for construction of fusion protein between human receptor and nuclease that may be used to degrade viral nucleic acids.

In vitro Type II Restriction of Bacteriophage DNA With Modified Pyrimidines

To counteract host-encoded restriction systems, bacteriophages (phages) incorporate modified bases in their genomes. For example, phages carry in their genomes modified pyrimidines such as 5-hydroxymethyl-cytosine (5hmC) in T4gt deficient in α- and β-glycosyltransferases, glucosylated-5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5gmC) in T4, 5-methylcytosine (5mC) in Xp12, and 5-hydroxymethyldeoxyuridine (5hmdU) in SP8. In this work we sequenced phage Xp12 and SP8 genomes and examined Type II restriction of T4gt, T4, Xp12, and SP8 phage DNAs. T4gt, T4, and Xp12 genomes showed resistance to 81.9% (186 out of 227 enzymes tested), 94.3% (214 out of 227 enzymes tested), and 89.9% (196 out of 218 enzymes tested), respectively, commercially available Type II restriction endonucleases (REases). The SP8 genome, however, was resistant to only ∼8.3% of these enzymes (17 out of 204 enzymes tested). SP8 DNA could be further modified by adenine DNA methyltransferases (MTases) such as M.Dam and M.EcoGII as well as a number of cytosine DNA MTases, such as CpG methylase. The 5hmdU base in SP8 DNA was phosphorylated by treatment with a 5hmdU DNA kinase to achieve ∼20% phosphorylated 5hmdU, resulting resistance or partially resistant to more Type II restriction. This work provides a convenient reference for molecular biologists working with modified pyrimidines and using REases. The genomic sequences of phage Xp12 and SP8 lay the foundation for further studies on genetic pathways for 5mC and 5hmdU DNA base modifications and for comparative phage genomics.

SspABCD-SspE is a phosphorothioation-sensing bacterial defence system with broad anti-phage activities

Bacteria have evolved diverse mechanisms to fend off predation by bacteriophages. We previously identified the Dnd system, which uses DndABCDE to insert sulfur into the DNA backbone as a double-stranded phosphorothioate (PT) modification, and DndFGH, a restriction component. Here, we describe an unusual SspABCD-SspE PT system in Vibrio cyclitrophicus, Escherichia coli and Streptomyces yokosukanensis, which has distinct genetic organization, biochemical functions and phenotypic behaviour. SspABCD confers single-stranded and high-frequency PTs with SspB acting as a nickase and possibly introducing nicks to facilitate sulfur incorporation. Strikingly, SspABCD coupled with SspE provides protection against phages in unusual ways: (1) SspE senses sequence-specific PTs by virtue of its PT-stimulated NTPase activity to exert its anti-phage activity, and (2) SspE inhibits phage propagation by introducing nicking damage to impair phage DNA replication. These results not only expand our knowledge about the diversity and functions of DNA PT modification but also enhance our understanding of the known arsenal of defence systems.

Crystal structure of the modification-dependent SRA-HNH endonuclease TagI

TagI belongs to the recently characterized SRA-HNH family of modification-dependent restriction endonucleases (REases) that also includes ScoA3IV (Sco5333) and TbiR51I (Tbis1). Here, we present a crystal structure of dimeric TagI, which exhibits a DNA binding site formed jointly by the nuclease domains, and separate binding sites for modified DNA bases in the two protomers. The nuclease domains have characteristic features of HNH/ββα-Me REases, and catalyze nicks or double strand breaks, with preference for /RY and RYN/RY sites, respectively. The SRA domains have the canonical fold. Their pockets for the flipped bases are spacious enough to accommodate 5-methylcytosine (^5mC) or 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (^5hmC), but not glucosyl-5-hydroxymethylcytosine (^g5hmC). Such preference is in agreement with the biochemical determination of the TagI modification dependence and the results of phage restriction assays. The ability of TagI to digest plasmids methylated by Dcm (C^5mCWGG), M.Fnu4HI (G^5mCNGC) or M.HpyCH4IV (A^5mCGT) suggests that the SRA domains of the enzyme are tolerant to different sequence contexts of the modified base.

Type II Restriction of Bacteriophage DNA With 5hmdU-Derived Base Modifications

To counteract bacterial defense systems, bacteriophages (phages) make extensive base modifications (substitutions) to block endonuclease restriction. Here we evaluated Type II restriction of three thymidine (T or 5-methyldeoxyuridine, 5mdU) modified phage genomes: Pseudomonas phage M6 with 5-(2-aminoethyl)deoxyuridine (5-NedU), Salmonella phage ViI (Vi1) with 5-(2-aminoethoxy)methyldeoxyuridine (5-NeOmdU) and Delftia phage phi W-14 (a.k.a. ΦW-14) with α-putrescinylthymidine (putT). Among >200 commercially available restriction endonucleases (REases) tested, phage M6, ViI, and phi W-14 genomic DNAs (gDNA) show resistance against 48.4, 71.0, and 68.8% of Type II restrictions, respectively. Inspection of the resistant sites indicates the presence of conserved dinucleotide TG or TC (TS, S=C, or G), implicating the specificity of TS sequence as the target that is converted to modified base in the genomes. We also tested a number of DNA methyltransferases (MTases) on these phage DNAs and found some MTases can fully or partially modify the DNA to confer more resistance to cleavage by REases. Phage M6 restriction fragments can be efficiently ligated by T4 DNA ligase. Phi W-14 restriction fragments show apparent reduced rate in E. coli exonuclease III degradation. This work extends previous studies that hypermodified T derived from 5hmdU provides additional resistance to host-encoded restrictions, in parallel to modified cytosines, guanine, and adenine in phage genomes. The results reported here provide a general guidance to use REases to map and clone phage DNA with hypermodified thymidine.

The Odd "RB" Phage-Identification of Arabinosylation as a New Epigenetic Modification of DNA in T4-Like Phage RB69

In bacteriophages related to T4, hydroxymethylcytosine (hmC) is incorporated into the genomic DNA during DNA replication and is then further modified to glucosyl-hmC by phage-encoded glucosyltransferases. Previous studies have shown that RB69 shares a core set of genes with T4 and relatives. However, unlike the other “RB” phages, RB69 is unable to recombine its DNA with T4 or with the other “RB” isolates. In addition, despite having homologs to the T4 enzymes used to synthesize hmC, RB69 has no identified homolog to known glucosyltransferase genes. In this study we sought to understand the basis for RB69’s behavior using high-pH anion exchange chromatography (HPAEC) and mass spectrometry. Our analyses identified a novel phage epigenetic DNA sugar modification in RB69 DNA, which we have designated arabinosyl-hmC (ara-hmC). We sought a putative glucosyltranserase responsible for this novel modification and determined that RB69 also has a novel transferase gene, ORF003c, that is likely responsible for the arabinosyl-specific modification. We propose that ara-hmC was responsible for RB69 being unable to participate in genetic exchange with other hmC-containing T-even phages, and for its described incipient speciation. The RB69 ara-hmC also likely protects its DNA from some anti-phage type-IV restriction endonucleases. Several T4-related phages, such as E. coli phage JS09 and Shigella phage Shf125875 have homologs to RB69 ORF003c, suggesting the ara-hmC modification may be relatively common in T4-related phages, highlighting the importance of further work to understand the role of this modification and the biochemical pathway responsible for its production.

Restriction and modification of deoxyarchaeosine (dG+)-containing phage 9 g DNA

E. coli phage 9 g contains the modified base deoxyarchaeosine (dG⁺) in its genome. The phage encodes its own primase, DNA ligase, DNA polymerase, and enzymes necessary to synthesize and incorporate dG⁺. Here we report phage 9 g DNA sensitivity to >200 Type II restriction endonucleases (REases). Among the REases tested approximately 29% generated complete or partial digestions, while the remaining 71% displayed resistance to restriction. Phage 9 g restriction fragments can be degraded by DNA exonucleases or ligated by T3 and T4 DNA ligases. In addition, we examined a number of cytosine and adenine methyltransferases to generate double base modifications. M.AluI, M.CviPI, M.HhaI, and M.EcoGII were able to introduce ^5mC or ^N6mA into 9 g DNA as confirmed by partial resistance to restriction and by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. A number of wild-type E. coli bacteria restricted phage 9 g, indicating natural restriction barriers exist in some strains. A BlastP search of GenBank sequences revealed five glutamine amidotransferase-QueC homologs in Enterobacteria and Pseudomonas phage, and distant homologs in other phage and bacterial genomes, suggesting that dG⁺ is not a rare modification. We also mapped phage 9 g DNA packaging (pac) site containing two 21-bp direct repeats and a major terminase cleavage site in the phage genome.

A fast exact sequential algorithm for the partial digest problem

Background

Restriction site analysis involves determining the locations of restriction sites after the process of digestion by reconstructing their positions based on the lengths of the cut DNA. Using different reaction times with a single enzyme to cut DNA is a technique known as a partial digestion. Determining the exact locations of restriction sites following a partial digestion is challenging due to the computational time required even with the best known practical algorithm.

Results

In this paper, we introduce an efficient algorithm to find the exact solution for the partial digest problem. The algorithm is able to find all possible solutions for the input and works by traversing the solution tree with a breadth-first search in two stages and deleting all repeated subproblems. Two types of simulated data, random and Zhang, are used to measure the efficiency of the algorithm. We also apply the algorithm to real data for the Luciferase gene and the E. coli K12 genome.

Conclusion

Our algorithm is a fast tool to find the exact solution for the partial digest problem. The percentage of improvement is more than 75% over the best known practical algorithm for the worst case. For large numbers of inputs, our algorithm is able to solve the problem in a suitable time, while the best known practical algorithm is unable.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12859-016-1365-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Expression and purification of the modification-dependent restriction enzyme BisI and its homologous enzymes

The methylation-dependent restriction endonuclease (REase) BisI (G(m5)C ↓ NGC) is found in Bacillus subtilis T30. We expressed and purified the BisI endonuclease and 34 BisI homologs identified in bacterial genomes. 23 of these BisI homologs are active based on digestion of (m5)C-modified substrates. Two major specificities were found among these BisI family enzymes: Group I enzymes cut GCNGC containing two to four (m5)C in the two strands, or hemi-methylated sites containing two (m5)C in one strand; Group II enzymes only cut GCNGC sites containing three to four (m5)C, while one enzyme requires all four cytosines to be modified for cleavage. Another homolog, Esp638I cleaves GCS ↓ SGC (relaxed specificity RCN ↓ NGY, containing at least four (m5)C). Two BisI homologs show degenerate specificity cleaving unmodified DNA. Many homologs are small proteins ranging from 150 to 190 amino acid (aa) residues, but some homologs associated with mobile genetic elements are larger and contain an extra C-terminal domain. More than 156 BisI homologs are found in >60 bacterial genera, indicating that these enzymes are widespread in bacteria. They may play an important biological function in restricting pre-modified phage DNA.

Biosynthesis and Function of Modified Bases in Bacteria and Their Viruses

Naturally occurring modification of the canonical A, G, C, and T bases can be found in the DNA of cellular organisms and viruses from all domains of life. Bacterial viruses (bacteriophages) are a particularly rich but still underexploited source of such modified variant nucleotides. The modifications conserve the coding and base-pairing functions of DNA, but add regulatory and protective functions. In prokaryotes, modified bases appear primarily to be part of an arms race between bacteriophages (and other genomic parasites) and their hosts, although, as in eukaryotes, some modifications have been adapted to convey epigenetic information. The first half of this review catalogs the identification and diversity of DNA modifications found in bacteria and bacteriophages. What is known about the biogenesis, context, and function of these modifications are also described. The second part of the review places these DNA modifications in the context of the arms race between bacteria and bacteriophages. It focuses particularly on the defense and counter-defense strategies that turn on direct recognition of the presence of a modified base. Where modification has been shown to affect other DNA transactions, such as expression and chromosome segregation, that is summarized, with reference to recent reviews.

Phylogenomics and sequence-structure-function relationships in the GmrSD family of Type IV restriction enzymes

BACKGROUND

GmrSD is a modification-dependent restriction endonuclease that specifically targets and cleaves glucosylated hydroxymethylcytosine (glc-HMC) modified DNA. It is encoded either as two separate single-domain GmrS and GmrD proteins or as a single protein carrying both domains. Previous studies suggested that GmrS acts as endonuclease and NTPase whereas GmrD binds DNA.

METHODS

In this work we applied homology detection, sequence conservation analysis, fold recognition and homology modeling methods to study sequence-structure-function relationships in the GmrSD restriction endonucleases family. We also analyzed the phylogeny and genomic context of the family members.

RESULTS

Results of our comparative genomics study show that GmrS exhibits similarity to proteins from the ParB/Srx fold which can have both NTPase and nuclease activity. In contrast to the previous studies though, we attribute the nuclease activity also to GmrD as we found it to contain the HNH endonuclease motif. We revealed residues potentially important for structure and function in both domains. Moreover, we found that GmrSD systems exist predominantly as a fused, double-domain form rather than as a heterodimer and that their homologs are often encoded in regions enriched in defense and gene mobility-related elements. Finally, phylogenetic reconstructions of GmrS and GmrD domains revealed that they coevolved and only few GmrSD systems appear to be assembled from distantly related GmrS and GmrD components.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides insight into sequence-structure-function relationships in the yet poorly characterized family of Type IV restriction enzymes. Comparative genomics allowed to propose possible role of GmrD domain in the function of the GmrSD enzyme and possible active sites of both GmrS and GmrD domains. Presented results can guide further experimental characterization of these enzymes.