Fish-seastar facilitation leads to algal forest restoration on protected rocky reefs

Overfishing and sea warming drive the collapse of Paracentrotus lividus

As a seafood delicacy, the purple sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus is the most exploited echinoid species in the Mediterranean Sea, with a significant increase in total catches being reported over the last 2 decades. This work presents: (i) the findings from two demographic monitoring campaigns, conducted on P. lividus populations in summer 2023, at shallow depths within the coastal areas of Sicily and Apulia; (ii) a meta-analysis of the P. lividus density in the Mediterranean Sea over the last 30 years. In both sampled areas, the recorded individual density was lower than ever, with an average value of 0.2 ind/m2. No significant difference in P. lividus density was detected between protected and non-protected areas. The observed rarity of the edible sea urchin is corroborated by a meta-regression analysis of data from 44 published articles over the period 1990-2020, showing that the decline of P. lividus populations in the Mediterranean Sea began in 2003, coincident with the occurrence of a pan-European heat wave and with the anomalous warming of the entire Mediterranean Sea.

Impact of ocean warming and food restriction on the fecundity of the sea star Asterias rubens

Sea stars are major predators in marine ecosystems that impact shellfish aquaculture because of their predation on cultured bivalves. As ectotherms, their reproductive success is expected to be impacted by rising ocean temperatures and change in prey availability induced by climate change. As reproduction is a key process in the reduction, maintenance, and proliferation of populations, the impacts of ocean warming and food ration on the fecundity of the sea star Asterias rubens were investigated. Males and females were exposed for 6 months either to monthly temperatures from the 1995-2014 periods or to temperatures projected at the end of the century by the "business as usual" scenario of greenhouse gases emission. Sea stars were also fed with a normal (3 mussels twice a week) or restricted (1 mussel twice a week) food ration. Biometric parameters (body weight, arm length, pyloric caeca weight, gonad weight, pyloric index, gonadosomatic index), gamete concentration (number of oocytes or sperm per gram of gonad) and fecundity (number of oocytes or sperm per individual) were assessed at the end of the experimental period. Sea stars exposed to elevated temperatures or to food restriction had reduced fecundity because of their reduced gonads weight. However, fecundity of food-restricted males was not reduced compared to well-fed ones despite their lower gonads weight, thanks to higher sperm concentration in their gonads. Overall, these results indicate that future environmental conditions induced by climate change could reduce the reproductive success of A. rubens.

Coralline barrens and benthic mega-invertebrates: An intimate connection

Despite considerable progress in understanding the transition from algal forests to coralline barrens, knowledge of coralline barren ecosystems in terms of community composition and functioning is still sparse and important gaps remain to be filled. Using a barren/forest patch system, we tested the hypothesis that the presence of coralline barren enhances the abundance and diversity of benthic mega-invertebrates. We also analysed trophic functional diversity through isotopic analyses of δ13C and δ15N. The distribution of benthic mega-invertebrates biomass differed markedly between coralline barren and algal forest, being more abundant and diverse in the barren state. Isotopic diversity metrics of the benthic mega-invertebrates assemblage indicated comparable trophic structure between the two states, although higher isotopic uniqueness in coralline barren was determined by sea urchins, especially A. lixula, and carnivorous starfish. We showed that in a patchy coralline barren/algal forest system, a more diversified benthic mega-invertebrates assemblage in the barren caused limited trophodynamic changes. This was possibly determined by the behaviour of some trophic groups such as filter feeders, deposit feeders and omnivores. Finally, our results evidence the close association between coralline barrens and benthic mega-invertebrates, contradicting the common view of coralline barrens as depauperate habitats with low diversity and productivity.

Alterations in sea urchin (Mesocentrotus nudus) microbiota and their potential contributions to host according to barren severity

Sea urchins are biotic factors driving the decline of kelp forests in marine ecosystems. However, few studies have analyzed the microbiota of surviving sea urchins in barren regions with scarce diet resources. Here, we analyzed the microbiota in the pharynx and gut of the sea urchin Mesocentrotus nudus located along the coast of an expanding barren region in South Korea. The ecological adaptation of genera in sea urchins was predicted using the neutral assembly model. The pharynx and gut microbiota were different, and microbes in the surrounding habitats dispersed more to the pharynx than to the gut. The gut microbiota in sea urchins is altered by barren severity and plays different roles in host energy metabolism. These findings help to understand the microbiota in sea urchins according to urchin barren and its contribution to the survival of sea urchins in severe barren regions with limited macroalgae.

Grazing in the dark: A behavioural adjustment in a population of the black sea urchin Arbacia lixula

In Mediterranean rocky shores, the black sea urchin Arbacia lixula is often associated with communities dominated by encrusting corallines, devoid of fleshy algae. While it is commonly known as a diurnal herbivore, this species also migrates at night from hidden to more exposed habitats. Here, we provide the first experimental evidence of an adjustment to a predominant nocturnal behaviour in a population of A. lixula. Sea urchin densities changed from nearly zero during daytime to more than 16 urchins m-2 at night in treatment plots where the sea urchins were removed. We suggest that the observed behaviour was triggered by our experimental manipulations and was a response to the presence of dead conspecifics and small predatory fishes attracted by the urchin culling. Further research is needed to assess whether our findings can be generalised to the behaviour of A. lixula in areas where sea urchins are under strong pressure from diurnal predators. In these cases, it is important to perform sea urchin density counts at night to avoid misleading assessments about the herbivore pressure in a littoral area.

Sea urchin repelling Tannin- FeIII complex coating for ocean macroalgal afforestation

Intense seaweed grazing by sea urchins has destroyed kelp forests and accelerated the transformation of these forests into barren areas known as urchin barrens. Once the sea urchins occupy the barren ground, it becomes more challenging to restore the kelp forests. Although phlorotannin, a primary herbivore defense chemical secreted by kelp, has been reported to discourage feeding activities of marine herbivores but the direct application of naturally extracted phlorotannin does not effectively repel sea urchins. In this study, we applied a simple and green Tannin-Fe^III (TA-Fe^III) coating on substrates as a sea urchin repellent using a cheap, ecofriendly tannin (TA) obtained from biomass as an alternative to phlorotannin. In a model aquarium experiment, most of the sea urchins (Anthocidaris crassispina) in the tank evaded the TA-Fe^III-coated substrates. In field tests with 300 sea urchins, the majority of sea urchins could not crawl over the TA-Fe^III-coated rope for more than 2 h in contrast to the control group. Hence, the safety, cost-effectiveness, and scalability of the TA-Fe^III coating make it a practical candidate to protect the kelp ecosystem from sea urchins.

Macroalgal forest vs sea urchin barren: Patterns of macro-zoobenthic diversity in a large-scale Mediterranean study

The study aimed at contributing to the knowledge of alternative stable states by evaluating the differences of mobile and sessile macro-zoobenthic assemblages between sea urchin barrens and macroalgal forests in coastal Mediterranean systems considering a large spatial scale. Six sites (100 s km apart) were selected: Croatia, Montenegro, Sicily (Italy), Sardinia (Italy), Tuscany (Italy), and Balearic Islands (Spain). A total of 531 taxa, 404 mobile and 127 sessile macro-invertebrates were recorded. Overall, 496 and 201 taxa were found in macroalgal forests and in barrens, respectively. The results of this large-scale descriptive study have met the expectation of lower macrofauna complexity and diversity in barrens rather than in macroalgal forests, and have allowed estimating the differences in levels of diversity and the consistency of variability across Mediterranean sites. Some peculiar patterns in barrens, related to both abundance of specific taxa and to high values of beta diversity, have been evidenced.

Sudden collapse of a mesopredator reveals its complementary role in mediating rocky reef regime shifts

While changes in the abundance of keystone predators can have cascading effects resulting in regime shifts, the role of mesopredators in these processes remains underexplored. We conducted annual surveys of rocky reef communities that varied in the recovery of a keystone predator (sea otter, Enhydra lutris) and the mass mortality of a mesopredator (sunflower sea star, Pycnopodia helianthoides) due to an infectious wasting disease. By fitting a population model to empirical data, we show that sea otters had the greatest impact on the mortality of large sea urchins, but that Pycnopodia decline corresponded to a 311% increase in medium urchins and a 30% decline in kelp densities. Our results reveal that predator complementarity in size-selective prey consumption strengthens top-down control on urchins, affecting the resilience of alternative reef states by reinforcing the resilience of kelp forests and eroding the resilience of urchin barrens. We reveal previously underappreciated species interactions within a 'classic' trophic cascade and regime shift, highlighting the critical role of middle-level predators in mediating rocky reef state transitions.

Warmer temperatures reduce the influence of an important keystone predator

Predator-prey interactions may be strongly influenced by temperature variations in marine ecosystems. Consequently, climate change may alter the importance of predators with repercussions for ecosystem functioning and structure. In North-eastern Pacific kelp forests, the starfish Pycnopodia helianthoides is known to be an important predator of the purple sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Here we investigated the influence of water temperature on this predator-prey interaction by: (i) assessing the spatial distribution and temporal dynamics of both species across a temperature gradient in the northern Channel Islands, California, and (ii) investigating how the feeding rate of P. helianthoides on S. purpuratus is affected by temperature in laboratory tests. On average, at sites where mean annual temperatures were <14 °C, P. helianthoides were common, S. purpuratus was rare and kelp was persistent, whereas where mean annual temperatures exceeded 14 °C, P. helianthoides and kelp were rare and S. purpuratus abundant. Temperature was found to be the primary environmental factor influencing P. helianthoides abundance, and in turn P. helianthoides was the primary determinant of S. purpuratus abundance. In the laboratory, temperatures >16 °C (equivalent to summer temperatures at sites where P. helianthoides were rare) reduced predation rates regardless of predator and prey sizes, although larger sea urchins were consumed only by large starfishes. These results clearly demonstrate that the effect of P. helianthoides on S. purpuratus is strongly mediated by temperature, and that the local abundance and predation rate of P. helianthoides on sea urchins will likely decrease with future warming. A reduction in top-down control on sea urchins, combined with other expected impacts of climate change on kelp, poses significant risks for the persistence of kelp forests in the future.

Biodiversity loss and turnover in alternative states in the Mediterranean Sea: a case study on meiofauna

In the Mediterranean Sea hard-bottom macroalgal meadows may switch to alternative and less-productive barrens grounds, as a result of sea urchins overgrazing. Meiofauna (and especially nematodes) represent key components of benthic ecosystems, are highly-diversified, sensitive to environmental change and anthropogenic impacts, but, so-far, have been neglected in studies on regime shifts. We report here that sedimentary organic matter contents, meiofaunal taxa richness and community composition, nematode α- and β-biodiversity vary significantly between alternative macroalgal and barren states. The observed differences are consistent in six areas spread across the Mediterranean Sea, irrespective of barren extent. Our results suggest also that the low biodiversity levels in barren states are the result of habitat loss/fragmentation, which is associated also with a lower availability of trophic resources. Furthermore, differences in meiofaunal and nematode abundance, biomass and diversity between macroalgal meadow and barren states persist when the latter is not fully formed, or consists of patches interspersed in macroalgal meadows. Since barren grounds are expanding rapidly along the Mediterranean Sea and meiofauna are a key trophic component in marine ecosystems, we suggest that the extension and persistence of barrens at the expenses of macroalgal meadows could also affect resilience of higher trophic level.

Warming-related shifts in the distribution of two competing coastal wrasses

Warming induces organisms to adapt or to move to track thermal optima, driving novel interspecific interactions or altering pre-existing ones. We investigated how rising temperatures can affect the distribution of two antagonist Mediterranean wrasses: the 'warm-water' Thalassoma pavo and the 'cool-water' Coris julis. Using field surveys and an extensive database of depth-related patterns of distribution of wrasses across 346 sites, last-decade and projected patterns of distribution for the middle (2040-2059) and the end of century (2080-2099) were analysed by a multivariate model-based framework. Results show that T. pavo dominates shallow waters at warmest locations, where C. julis locates deeper. The northernmost shallow locations are dominated by C. julis where T. pavo abundance is low. Projections suggest that the W-Mediterranean will become more suitable for T. pavo whilst large sectors of the E-Mediterranean will be unsuitable for C. julis, progressively restricting its distribution range. These shifts might result in fish communities' re-arrangement and novel functional responses throughout the food-web.