Transcriptome analysis of interactions between silkworm and cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus

Biological and genomic characterization of a cypovirus isolated from golden muga silkworm, Antheraea assamensis Helfer (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)

A potential viral pathogen, cypovirus causing cytoplasmic polyhedrosis in the Indian golden muga silkworm, Antheraea assamensis Helfer, was isolated and characterized. Electron microscopy analysis confirmed the presence of typical occlusion bodies with icosahedral virions embedded in polyhedral matrices. The viral genome was dsRNA totaling approximately 24.9 kb in size, divided into 10 discrete segments containing one single open reading frame (ORF) each. Genomic analysis revealed conserved non-coding sequences such as 'AGUAAU' and 'AUAGAGC' at 5' and 3' termini, respectively. Functional annotation identified the presence of structural proteins, such as major and minor capsid proteins, as well as enzymatic proteins, including RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). Phylogenetic analysis using deduced amino acid sequences of viral RdRp gene indicated a close evolutionary relationship between the cypovirus isolated from Antheraea assamensis and Antheraea mylitta cypovirus 4 (AmCPV4), thus we named the Indian golden muga silkworm cypovirus as Antheraea assamensis cypovirus 4 (AaCPV4). Nevertheless, AaCPV4 does not have a genomic segment 11 which was earlier reported in AmCPV4. Bioassay studies demonstrated high virulence, with 100 % larval mortality observed within 12 days of infection due to cytoplasmic polyhedrosis. Tissue tropism studies revealed significant viral replication in the midgut, hemolymph, and malpighian tubules, with the midgut exhibiting the highest viral load (9.65 log copy number of RdRp gene/µg of RNA). Cross-transmission experiments demonstrated AaCPV4 host specificity, infecting only in Antheraea species (A. mylitta and A. assamensis), while other lepidopteran insects including silkworms Bombyx mori, and Samia ricini were not susceptible to AaCPV4 infection. According to morphological, genetic, and biological characteristics, we suggest that AaCPV4 is an isolate of the species Cypovirus antheraeae (family Spinareoviridae).

Single-nucleus RNA sequencing reveals midgut cellular heterogeneity and transcriptional profiles in Bombyx mori cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus infection

The gut is not only used by insects as an organ for the digestion of food and absorption of nutrients but also as an important barrier against the invasion and proliferation of pathogenic microorganisms. Bombyx mori cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (BmCPV), an insect-specific virus, predominantly colonizes the midgut epithelial cells of the silkworm, thereby jeopardizing its normal growth. However, there is limited knowledge of the cellular immune responses to viral infection and whether the infection is promoted or inhibited by different types of cells in the silkworm midgut. In this study, we used single-nucleus RNA sequencing to identify representative enteroendocrine cells, enterocytes, and muscle cell types in the silkworm midgut. In addition, by analyzing the transcriptional profiles of various subpopulations in the infected and uninfected groups, we found that BmCPV infection suppresses the response of the antiviral pathways and induces the expression of BmHSP70, which plays a role in promoting BmCPV replication. However, certain immune genes in the midgut of the silkworm, such as BmLebocin3, were induced upon viral infection, and downregulation of BmLEB3 using RNA interference promoted BmCPV replication in the midgut of B. mori. These results suggest that viral immune evasion and active host resistance coexist in BmCPV-infected silkworms. We reveal the richness of cellular diversity in the midgut of B. mori larvae by single-nucleus RNA sequencing analysis and provide new insights into the complex interactions between the host and the virus at the single-cell level.

Transcriptome analysis indicates the mechanisms of BmNPV resistance in Bombyx mori midgut

Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) caused serious economic losses in sericulture. Analyzing the molecular mechanism of silkworms (B. mori) resistance to BmNPV is of great significance for the prevention and control of silkworm virus diseases and the biological control of agricultural lepidopteran pests. In order to clarify the defense mechanisms of silkworms against BmNPV, we constructed a near isogenic line BC8 with high resistance to BmNPV through the highly BmNPV-resistant strain NB and the highly BmNPV-susceptible strain 306. In this study, RNA-Seq technique was used to analyze the transcriptome level differences in the midgut of BC8 and 306 following BmNPV infection. A total of 1350 DEGs were identified. Clustering analysis showed that these genes could be divided into 8 clusters with different expression patterns. Functional annotations based on GO and KEGG analysis indicated that they were involved in various metabolism pathways. Finally, 32 BmNPV defense responsive genes were screened. They were involved in metabolism, reactive oxygen species (ROS), signal transduction and immune response, and insect hormones. The further verification shows that HSP70 should participate in resistance responses of anti-BmNPV. These findings have paved the way in further functional characterization of candidate genes and subsequently can be used in breeding of BmNPV resistance dominant silkworms.

WIV, a protein domain found in a wide number of arthropod viruses, which probably facilitates infection

The most powerful approach to detect distant homologues of a protein is based on structure prediction and comparison. Yet this approach is still inapplicable to many viral proteins. Therefore, we applied a powerful sequence-based procedure to identify distant homologues of viral proteins. It relies on three principles: (1) traces of sequence similarity can persist beyond the significance cutoff of homology detection programmes; (2) candidate homologues can be identified among proteins with weak sequence similarity to the query by using 'contextual' information, e.g. taxonomy or type of host infected; (3) these candidate homologues can be validated using highly sensitive profile-profile comparison. As a test case, this approach was applied to a protein without known homologues, encoded by ORF4 of Lake Sinai viruses (which infect bees). We discovered that the ORF4 protein contains a domain that has homologues in proteins from >20 taxa of viruses infecting arthropods. We called this domain 'widespread, intriguing, versatile' (WIV), because it is found in proteins with a wide variety of functions and within varied domain contexts. For example, WIV is found in the NSs protein of tospoviruses, a global threat to food security, which infect plants as well as their arthropod vectors; in the RNA2 ORF1-encoded protein of chronic bee paralysis virus, a widespread virus of bees; and in various proteins of cypoviruses, which infect the silkworm Bombyx mori. Structural modelling with AlphaFold indicated that the WIV domain has a previously unknown fold, and bibliographical evidence suggests that it facilitates infection of arthropods.

Peptidoglycan Recognition Protein S5 of Bombyx mori Facilitates the Proliferation of Bombyx mori Cypovirus 1

Bombyx mori cypovirus 1 (BmCPV1), a primary pathogen of the silkworm, is a typical dsRNA virus belonging to the Reoviridae family. In this study, a total of 2520 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified by RNA-seq analysis of the silkworm midgut after BmCPV1 infection and Gene Ontology (GO) functional annotation showed that the DEGs predominantly functioned in binding (molecular function), cell (cellular component), and cellular processes (biological process). Additionally, the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) functional annotation revealed that the DEGs were mainly distributed in global and overview metabolism maps, translation, and signal transduction. Among the identified DEGs, BmPGRP-S5 belongs to the peptidoglycan recognition protein (PGRP) family. Previous studies have revealed that PGRPs were involved in the interactions between silkworm and BmCPV1. Here, we explored the effect of BmPGRP-S5 on BmCPV1 replication and demonstrated that BmPGRP-S5 promotes the proliferation of BmCPV1 in BmN cells through overexpression or knockdown experiments. Knocking down of BmPGRP-S5 in silkworm larvae similarly promoted the proliferation of BmCPV1. Through experimental validation, we therefore determined that BmPGRP-S5 acts as a proviral host factor for BmCPV1 infection. This study clarifies the proliferation mechanism of BmCPV1 and provides new insights into the functional role of BmPGRP-S5.

Transcriptome analysis reveals that knocking out BmNPV iap2 induces apoptosis by inhibiting the oxidative phosphorylation pathway

Apoptosis is essential for the normal growth, development, and immunity defense of living organisms, and its function and mechanisms have been intensively studied. When viral infection occurs, apoptosis is triggered, causing programmed death of the infected cells. Meanwhile, viruses have also evolved countermeasures to inhibit apoptosis in host cells. We previously constructed a transgenic silkworm line with significantly improved resistance to Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) by knocking out the BmNPV inhibitor of apoptosis 2 (iap2) gene. However, the mechanism of how IAP2 induces apoptosis still needs to be further investigated. Here, the transcriptomes of Cas9(-)/sgiap2 (-) and Cas9(+)/sgiap2(+) strains were analyzed at 48 h after BmNPV infection, and a total of 709 differential genes were obtained. A KEGG analysis revealed that the differentially expressed genes were enriched in the oxidative phosphorylation, proteasome, and ribosome pathways. In the oxidative phosphorylation pathway, 41 differentially expressed genes were downregulated, and 12 of these genes were verified by qRT-PCR. More importantly, the knockout of BmNPV iap2 led to the inhibition of the oxidative phosphorylation pathway, followed by activated oxidative stress triggered apoptosis, thereby inhibiting the replication of BmNPV in vitro and vivo. The results provide a basis for the analysis of the initiation of apoptosis that can inhibit virus proliferation, and the study presents new ideas for the subsequent creation of resistant material.

Identification of Key Genes Involved in Resistance to Early Stage of BmNPV Infection in Silkworms

Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) is one of the most serious pathogens restricting the sustainable development of the sericulture industry. Currently, there is no effective treatment for BmNPV infection in silkworms, and the mechanism underlying BmNPV resistance in silkworms is also not clear. In this study, comparative transcriptome analyses were carried out in midguts of two silkworm varieties, namely BaiyuN, which is a resistance variety, and Baiyu, which is a susceptible variety, at five different time points (i.e., 0, 1, 3, 6, and 9 h) post-BmNPV infection to detect the early-stage transcriptional changes in these silkworms. In total, 1911 and 1577 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in the Baiyu and BaiyuN varieties, respectively, involving a total of 48 metabolic pathways. Of these pathways, eight were shared by the Baiyu and BaiyuN varieties in response to BmNPV infection. Notably, four genes (i.e., BGIBMGA08815, BGIBMGA003935, BGIBMGA003571, BGIBMGA010059) were upregulated in the Baiyu variety while downregulated in the BaiyuN variety. The inhibited expression of these four genes in the resistant variety highlighted their potential roles in the resistance of early-stage viral replication. Thus, our study provided a new avenue for the further study of the mechanism underlying BmNPV infection in silkworms and the potential treatment of BmNPV infection.

A cypovirus encoded microRNA negatively regulates the NF-κB pathway to enhance viral multiplication in Silkworm, Bombyx mori

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that function as novel gene expression regulators at the post-transcriptional level. Not with standing that the biogenesis and function of miRNAs are well-understood in eukaryotes, little is known about RNA virus-encoded miRNAs. Bombyx mori cypovirus (BmCPV) is a double-stranded RNA virus with a segmented genome that causes cytoplasmic polyhedrosis disease in silkworm larvae. To date, the interaction between BmCPV and silkworm remains largely unclear. 22 candidate BmCPV-encoded miRNAs were identified in this study through small RNA sequencing, stem-loop RT-PCR and qRT-PCR. Then, generation and function analyses were conducted on one of the candidate miRNAs, BmCPV-miR-1, in the BmN cells and the silkworm larvae by RNA interference, quantitative PCR, dual-luciferase assay. Our results revealed that BmCPV-miR-1 was encoded by BmCPV genome RNA rather than the degraded fragments of the viral genome. Its generation depended on Dicer-1 and might also be correlated with Dicer-2, Argonaute-1 and Argonaute-2. Moreover, BmCPV-miR-1 could suppress the expression of the target gene, B. mori inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa-B kinase subunit beta (BmIKKβ), via binding to the target mRNA 3'-untranslated region, which fine-tuned the host NF-κB signaling pathway and consequently enhanced viral replication. Our results provide new evidence supporting the hypothesis that RNA viruses could generate miRNAs to modulate antiviral host defense.

BmCPV-Derived Circular DNA vcDNA-S7 Mediated by Bombyx mori Reverse Transcriptase (RT) Regulates BmCPV Infection

Circular DNAs derived from single-stranded RNA viruses play important roles in counteracting viral infection. However, whether double-stranded RNA viruses generate functional circular DNAs is still unknown. Using circDNA sequencing, divergent PCR, DNA in situ hybridization and rolling circular amplification, we presently confirmed that in silkworm, Bombyx mori cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (BmCPV), a double-stranded RNA virus belonging to cypovirus, is prone to produce a BmCPV-derived circular DNA termed as vcDNA-S7. We have also found that vcDNA-S7 formation is mediated by endogenous reverse transcriptase (RT), and the proliferation of BmCPV can be inhibited by vcDNA-S7 in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, we have discovered that the silkworm RNAi immune pathway is activated by vcDNA-S7, while viral small interfering RNAs (vsiRNAs) derived from transcribed RNA by vcDNA-S7 can be detected by small RNA deep sequencing. These results suggest that BmCPV-derived vcDNA-S7, mediated by RT, can serve as a template for the biogenesis of antiviral siRNAs, which may lead to the repression of BmCPV infection. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration that a circular DNA, produced by double stranded RNA viruses, is capable of regulating virus infection.

Carbohydrate metabolism is a determinant for the host specificity of baculovirus infections

Baculoviruses Autographa californica multicapsid nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) and Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) have highly similar genome sequences but exhibit no overlap in their host range. After baculovirus infects nonpermissive larvae (e.g., AcMNPV infecting B. mori or BmNPV infecting Spodoptera litura), we found that stored carbohydrates, including hemolymph trehalose and fat body glycogen, are rapidly transformed into glucose; enzymes involved in glycolysis and the TCA cycle are upregulated and produce more ATP; adenosine signaling that regulates glycolytic activity is also increased. Subsequently, phagocytosis in cellular immunity and the expression of genes involved in humoral immunity increase significantly. Moreover, inhibiting glycolysis and the expression of gloverins in nonpermissive hosts increased baculovirus infectivity, indicating that the stimulated energy production is designed to support the immune response against infection. Our study highlights that alteration of the host's carbohydrate metabolism is an important factor determining the host specificity of baculoviruses, in addition to viral factors.

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Nonpermissive infections by AcMNPV and BmNPV alter host carbohydrate metabolism

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Increased carbohydrate metabolism produces energy to launch immune responses

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Immune responses including antimicrobial peptide production inhibit virus infection

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Host metabolic alterations affect the determination of virus's host specificity

Bombyx mori cypovirus (BmCPV) induces PINK1-Parkin mediated mitophagy via interaction of VP4 with host Tom40

The mechanism by which infection by Bombyx mori cytoplasmic nucleopolyhedrosis virus (BmCPV) causes autophagy has not been studied in detail. Herein we have observed by electron microscopy that infection with BmCPV causes autophagosome and mitochondrial structure damage in Bombyx mori midgut. In BmN cells infected with BmCPV and expressing eGFP-LC3, fluorescence spots and LC3-II levels increased, suggesting that BmCPV infection causes autophagy. Autophagy inducer rapamycin (Rap) and autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA) were used to monitor the effects of mitophagy on BmCPV proliferation. It was found BmCPV proliferation to be promoted by mitophagy. Transient transfection experiments in cultured BmN cells showed that mitophagy can be triggered by expression of BmCPV structural protein VP4. Moreover, VP4 caused upregulation of p-Drp1, PINK1 and Parkin proteins in the mitophagy pathway and downregulation of mitochondrial membrane protein Tom20. Furthermore, interaction between VP4 with Tom40 was confirmed by Co-IP, western blot and colocalization experiment, and overexpression of Tom40 reduce the level of mitochondrial autophagy induced by VP4. These results suggested that VP4 induced PINK1-Parkin-mediated mitophagy interacting with Tom40. These findings deepen our understanding of the interaction between BmCPV and silkworm and also provide a molecular target for screening anti-BmCPV drugs.

Transcriptional responses of Daphnis nerii larval midgut to oral infection by Daphnis nerii cypovirus-23

BACKGROUND

Daphnis nerii cypovirus-23 (DnCPV-23) is a new type of cypovirus and has a lethal effect on the oleander hawk moth, Daphnis nerii which feeds on leave of Oleander and Catharanthus et al. After DnCPV-23 infection, the change of Daphnis nerii responses has not been reported.

METHODS

To better understand the pathogenic mechanism of DnCPV-23 infection, 3rd-instar Daphnis nerii larvae were orally infected with DnCPV-23 occlusion bodies and the transcriptional responses of the Daphnis nerii midgut were analyzed 72 h post-infection using RNA-seq.

RESULTS

The results showed that 1979 differentially expressed Daphnis nerii transcripts in the infected midgut had been identified. KEGG analysis showed that protein digestion and absorption, Toll and Imd signaling pathway were down-regulated. Based on the result, we speculated that food digestion and absorption in insect midgut might be impaired after virus infection. In addition, the down-regulation of the immune response may make D. nerii more susceptible to bacterial infections. Glycerophospholipid metabolism and xenobiotics metabolism were up-regulated. These two types of pathways may affect the viral replication and xenobiotic detoxification of insect, respectively.

CONCLUSION

These results may facilitate a better understanding of the changes in Daphnis nerii metabolism during cypovirus infection and serve as a basis for future research on the molecular mechanism of DnCPV-23 invasion.

Insights Into the Antiviral Pathways of the Silkworm Bombyx mori

The lepidopteran model silkworm, Bombyx mori, is an important economic insect. Viruses cause serious economic losses in sericulture; thus, the economic importance of these viruses heightens the need to understand the antiviral pathways of silkworm to develop antiviral strategies. Insect innate immunity pathways play a critical role in the outcome of infection. The RNA interference (RNAi), NF-kB-mediated, immune deficiency (Imd), and stimulator of interferon gene (STING) pathways, and Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT) pathway are the major antiviral defense mechanisms, and these have been shown to play important roles in the antiviral immunity of silkworms. In contrast, viruses can modulate the prophenol oxidase (PPO), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt), and the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathways of the host to elevate their proliferation in silkworms. In this review, we present an overview of the current understanding of the main immune pathways in response to viruses and the signaling pathways modulated by viruses in silkworms. Elucidation of these pathways involved in the antiviral mechanism of silkworms furnishes a theoretical basis for the enhancement of virus resistance in economic insects, such as upregulating antiviral immune pathways through transgenic overexpression, RNAi of virus genes, and targeting these virus-modulated pathways by gene editing or inhibitors.

Identification of Membrane-Bound Lytic Murein Transglycosylase A (MltA) as a Growth Factor for Francisella novicida in a Silkworm Infection Model

Francisella tularensis, the causative agent of tularemia, is transmitted by arthropod vectors within mammalian hosts. The detailed mechanisms contributing to growth and survival of Francisella within arthropod remain poorly understood. To identify novel factors supporting growth and survival of Francisella within arthropods, a transposon mutant library of F. tularensis subsp. novicida (F. novicida) was screened using an F. novicida-silkworm infection model. Among 750 transposon mutants screened, the mltA-encoding membrane-bound lytic murein transglycosylase A (MltA) was identified as a novel growth factor of F. novicida in silkworms. Silkworms infection with an mltA deletion mutant (ΔmltA) resulted in a reduction in the number of bacteria and prolonged survival. The ΔmltA strain exhibited limited intracellular growth and cytotoxicity in BmN4 silkworm ovary cells. Moreover, the ΔmltA strain induced higher expression of the antimicrobial peptide in silkworms compared to the wild-type strain. These results suggest that F. novicida MltA contributes to the survival of F. novicida in silkworms via immune suppression-related mechanisms. Intracellular growth of the ΔmltA strain was also reduced in human monocyte THP-1 cells. These results also suggest the contribution of MltA to pathogenicity in humans and utility of the F. novicida-silkworm infection model to explore Francisella infection.

Antimicrobial Peptides as Potential Antiviral Factors in Insect Antiviral Immune Response

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with antiviral activity (antiviral peptides: AVPs) have become a research hotspot and already show immense potential to become pharmaceutically available antiviral drugs. AVPs have exhibited huge potential in inhibiting viruses by targeting various stages of their life cycle. Insects are the most speciose group of animals that inhabit almost all ecosystems and habitats on the land and are a rich source of natural AMPs. However, insect AVP mining, functional research, and drug development are still in their infancy. This review aims to summarize the currently validated insect AVPs, explore potential new insect AVPs and to discuss their possible mechanism of synthesis and action, with a view to providing clues to unravel the mechanisms of insect antiviral immunity and to develop insect AVP-derived antiviral drugs.

Transcriptome analysis of the immune response of silkworm at the early stage of Bombyx mori bidensovirus infection

Bombyx mori bidensovirus (BmBDV) infects silkworm midgut and causes chronic flacherie disease; however, the interaction between BmBDV and silkworm is unclear. Twenty-four hours after BmBDV infection, the midgut was extracted for RNA-seq to analyze the factors associated with BmBDV-invasion and the early antiviral immune response in silkworms. The total reads from each sample were more than 16100000 and the number of expressed genes exceeded 8200. There were 334 upregulated and 272 downregulated differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Gene ontology analysis of DEGs showed that structural constituents of cuticle, antioxidant, and immune system processes were upregulated. Further analysis revealed BmBDV-mediated induction of BmorCPR23 and BmorCPR44, suggesting possible involvement in viral invasion. Antioxidant genes that protect host cells from virus-induced oxidative stress, were significantly upregulated after BmBDV infection. Several genes related to peroxisomes, apoptosis, and autophagy-which may be involved in antiviral immunity-were induced by BmBDV. These results provide insights into the mechanism of BmBDV infection and host defense.

Adenosine Receptor Modulates Permissiveness of Baculovirus (Budded Virus) Infection via Regulation of Energy Metabolism in Bombyx mori

Although the modulation of host physiology has been interpreted as an essential process supporting baculovirus propagation, the requirement of energy supply for host antivirus reactions could not be ruled out. Our present study showed that metabolic induction upon AcMNPV (budded virus) infection of Bombyx mori stimulated virus clearance and production of the antivirus protein, gloverin. In addition, we demonstrated that adenosine receptor signaling (AdoR) played an important role in regulating such metabolic reprogramming upon baculovirus infection. By using a second lepidopteran model, Spodoptera frugiperda Sf-21 cells, we demonstrated that the glycolytic induction regulated by adenosine signaling was a conservative mechanism modulating the permissiveness of baculovirus infection. Another interesting finding in our present study is that both BmNPV and AcMNPV infection cause metabolic activation, but it appears that BmNPV infection moderates the level of ATP production, which is in contrast to a dramatic increase upon AcMNPV infection. We identified potential AdoR miRNAs induced by BmNPV infection and concluded that BmNPV may attempt to minimize metabolic activation by suppressing adenosine signaling and further decreasing the host's anti-baculovirus response. Our present study shows that activation of energy synthesis by adenosine signaling upon baculovirus infection is a host physiological response that is essential for supporting the innate immune response against infection.

Antiviral defense against Cypovirus 1 (Reoviridae) infection in the silkworm, Bombyx mori

Recent years have shown a large increase in studies of infection of the silkworm (Bombyx mori) with Cypovirus 1 (previously designated as B. mori cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus), that causes serious damage in sericulture. Cypovirus 1 has a single-layered capsid that encapsulates a segmented double-strand RNA (dsRNA) genome which are attractive features for the establishment of a biotechnological platform for the production of specialized gene silencing agents, either as recombinant viruses or as viral-like particles with nonreplicative dsRNA cargo. For both combatting viral disease and application of Cypovirus-based pest control, however, a better understanding is needed of the innate immune response caused by Cypovirus infection of the midgut of lepidopteran larvae. Studies of deep sequencing of viral small RNAs have indicated the importance of the RNA interference pathway in the control of Cypovirus infection although many functional aspects still need to be elucidated and conclusive evidence is lacking. A considerable number of transcriptome studies were carried out that revealed a complex response that hitherto remains uncharacterized because of a dearth in functional studies. Also, the uptake mechanism of Cypovirus by the midgut cells remains unclarified because of contrasting mechanisms revealed by electron microscopy and functional studies. The field will benefit from an increase in functional studies that will depend on transgenic silkworm technology and reverse genetics systems for Cypovirus 1.

Distinct Functions of Bombyx mori Peptidoglycan Recognition Protein 2 in Immune Responses to Bacteria and Viruses

Peptidoglycan recognition protein (PGRP) is an important pattern recognition receptor in innate immunity that is vital for bacterial recognition and defense in insects. Few studies report the role of PGRP in viral infection. Here we cloned two forms of PGRP from the model lepidopteran Bombyx mori: BmPGRP2-1 is a transmembrane protein, whereas BmPGRP2-2 is an intracellular protein. BmPGRP2-1 bound to diaminopimelic acid (DAP)-type peptidoglycan (PGN) to activate the canonical immune deficiency (Imd) pathway. BmPGRP2-2 knockdown reduced B. mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) multiplication and mortality in cell lines and in silkworm larvae, while its overexpression increased viral replication. Transcriptome and quantitative PCR (qPCR) results confirmed that BmPGRP2 negatively regulated phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN). BmPGRP2-2 expression was induced by BmNPV, and the protein suppressed PTEN-phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling to inhibit cell apoptosis, suggesting that BmNPV modulates BmPGRP2-2-PTEN-PI3K/Akt signaling to evade host antiviral defense. These results demonstrate that the two forms of BmPGRP2 have different functions in host responses to bacteria and viruses.

RNA Interference in Insects: Protecting Beneficials and Controlling Pests

Insects constitute the largest and most diverse group of animals on Earth with an equally diverse virome. The main antiviral immune system of these animals is the post-transcriptional gene-silencing mechanism known as RNA(i) interference. Furthermore, this process can be artificially triggered via delivery of gene-specific double-stranded RNA molecules, leading to specific endogenous gene silencing. This is called RNAi technology and has important applications in several fields. In this paper, we review RNAi mechanisms in insects as well as the potential of RNAi technology to contribute to species-specific insecticidal strategies. Regarding this aspect, we cover the range of strategies considered and investigated so far, as well as their limitations and the most promising approaches to overcome them. Additionally, we discuss patterns of viral infection, specifically persistent and acute insect viral infections. In the latter case, we focus on infections affecting economically relevant species. Within this scope, we review the use of insect-specific viruses as bio-insecticides. Last, we discuss RNAi-based strategies to protect beneficial insects from harmful viral infections and their potential practical application. As a whole, this manuscript stresses the impact of insect viruses and RNAi technology in human life, highlighting clear lines of investigation within an exciting and promising field of research.

Dynamic miRNA-mRNA regulations are essential for maintaining Drosophila immune homeostasis during Micrococcus luteus infection

Pathogen bacteria infections can lead to dynamic changes of microRNA (miRNA) and mRNA expression profiles, which may control synergistically the outcome of immune responses. To reveal the role of dynamic miRNA-mRNA regulation in Drosophila innate immune responses, we have detailedly analyzed the paired miRNA and mRNA expression profiles at three time points during Drosophila adult males with Micrococcus luteus (M. luteus) infection using RNA- and small RNA-seq data. Our results demonstrate that differentially expressed miRNAs and mRNAs represent extensively dynamic changes over three time points during Drosophila with M. luteus infection. The pathway enrichment analysis indicates that differentially expressed genes are involved in diverse signaling pathways, including Toll and Imd as well as orther signaling pathways at three time points during Drosophila with M. luteus infection. Remarkably, the dynamic change of miRNA expression is delayed by compared to mRNA expression change over three time points, implying that the "time" parameter should be considered when the function of miRNA/mRNA is further studied. In particular, the dynamic miRNA-mRNA regulatory networks have shown that miRNAs may synergistically regulate gene expressions of different signaling pathways to promote or inhibit innate immune responses and maintain homeostasis in Drosophila, and some new regulators involved in Drosophila innate immune response have been identified. Our findings strongly suggest that miRNA regulation is a key mechanism involved in fine-tuning cooperatively gene expressions of diverse signaling pathways to maintain innate immune response and homeostasis in Drosophila. Taken together, the present study reveals a novel role of dynamic miRNA-mRNA regulation in immune response to bacteria infection, and provides a new insight into the underlying molecular regulatory mechanism of Drosophila innate immune responses.

Enhancement of antiviral capacity of transgenic silkworms against cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus via knockdown of multiple viral genes

Bombyx mori cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (BmCPV), a major pathogen of silkworms, causes serious economic losses in sericulture. The BmCPV genome contains 10 discrete dsRNA segments; among these, S1, S2, S3, S4, S6, and S7 encode virus structural proteins, whereas S5, S8, S9, and S10 encode nonstructural proteins. In an attempt to create an anti-BmCPV silkworm strain, we constructed transgenic RNAi vector pb-CNS for knockdown of S5, S8, S9, and S10, and pb-SNS targeting S1, S2, S4, S5, and S8. Transgenic silkworm line CNS and SNS were generated via microinjection of the practical diapause silkworm strain Furong. Following infection via the oral administration of a high dose of BmCPV, the mortality rates of the nontransgenic control, CNS, and SNS were 91%, 37%, and 41%, respectively. qPCR showed that the viral mRNA content in CNS and SNS was significantly lower than that in the nontransgenic line. The economic traits of CNS and SNS were not affected. These results suggest that the knockdown of multiple BmCPV genes significantly enhances the antiviral capacity of the silkworm.

Effect of Vitamin A on Listeria monocytogenes Infection in a Silkworm Model

Insect infection models have been used increasingly to study various pathogenic agents in evaluations of pathogenicity and drug efficacy. In this study, we demonstrated that larvae of the silkworm Bombyx mori are useful for studying Listeria monocytogenes infections in insects. Infection with the L. monocytogenes wild-type strain induced silkworm death. Infection by a listeriolysin O (LLO) deletion mutant also induced silkworm death, but the bacterial numbers in silkworms were lower than those of the wild-type strain. Intracellular growth was observed when the silkworm ovary-derived cell line BmN4 was infected with the wild-type strain. Explosive replication was not observed in BmN4 cells infected with the LLO mutant and the bacterial numbers of the LLO mutant were lower than those of the wild-type strain. Pretreatment with vitamin A did not affect silkworm mortality after bacterial infection, but the efficiency of infecting the hemocytes and BmN4 cells was decreased with vitamin A treatment. Our results indicate that silkworm larvae are a useful insect infection model for L. monocytogenes and that vitamin A has protective effects against bacterial infection in silkworms.

Symbiosis with Francisella tularensis provides resistance to pathogens in the silkworm

Francisella tularensis, the causative agent of tularemia, is a highly virulent facultative intracellular pathogen found in a wide range of animals, including arthropods, and environments. This bacterium has been known for over 100 years, but the lifestyle of F. tularensis in natural reservoirs remains largely unknown. Thus, we established a novel natural host model for F. tularensis using the silkworm (Bombyx mori), which is an insect model for infection by pathogens. F. tularensis established a symbiosis with silkworms, and bacteria were observed in the hemolymph. After infection with F. tularensis, the induction of melanization and nodulation, which are immune responses to bacterial infection, were inhibited in silkworms. Pre-inoculation of silkworms with F. tularensis enhanced the expression of antimicrobial peptides and resistance to infection by pathogenic bacteria. These results suggest that silkworms acquire host resistance via their symbiosis with F. tularensis, which may have important fitness benefits in natural reservoirs.