Manganese Phosphate Self-assembled Nanoparticle Surface and Its application for Superoxide Anion Detection

Recent advances in electrochemical detection of reactive oxygen species: a review

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are mainly generated as a result of cellular metabolism in plants and animals, playing a crucial role in cellular signaling mechanisms. The excessive generation of ROS leads to oxidative stress, which is associated with numerous diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders. Superoxide (O2˙-), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radicals (˙OH) are the most common ROS involved in a wide range of human diseases. Therefore, sensitive and selective detection of these ROS is of paramount importance for understanding their roles in biological systems and for disease diagnosis. Among the various detection methods, electrochemical techniques have gained significant attention due to their high sensitivity, selectivity, and real-time monitoring capabilities. Electrochemical methods incorporate both organic and inorganic molecules to detect and monitor ROS, facilitating a deeper understanding of how their levels influence diseases linked to oxidative stress. This review aims to provide a critical discussion on the recent advances in electrochemical methods for detecting O2˙-, H2O2, and ˙OH. The review also highlights the application of these electrochemical techniques in detecting ROS in living cells and discusses the challenges and future perspectives in this field.

Crystal Growth and Color Tuning of Large Mn(PO3OH)·3H2O Crystals via an Evaporation-Assisted Aqueous Route at Room Temperature

Large Mn(PO3OH)·3H2O crystals have been prepared from aqueous solutions containing MnCl2 and (NH4)2HPO4 by an evaporation-induced crystal growth technique. The slow solvent evaporation at room temperature maintained the supersaturation of the precursor solution for a long time, resulting in the continuous growth of Mn(PO3OH)·3H2O crystals. The addition of citric acid as a chelating agent and increasing the total volume of the precursor solutions helped to maintain the mild supersaturation conditions for a longer time period, and transparent, unbranched Mn(PO3OH)·3H2O crystals above 2 mm in size were produced by aging for 8 weeks. The large Mn(PO3OH)·3H2O single crystals exhibited a pink color, and the color became stronger by doping with Co2+ ions.

Strategies for the development of metalloimmunotherapies

Metal ions play crucial roles in the regulation of immune pathways. In fact, metallodrugs have a long record of accomplishment as effective treatments for a wide range of diseases. Here we argue that the modulation of interactions of metal ions with molecules and cells involved in the immune system forms the basis of a new class of immunotherapies. By examining how metal ions modulate the innate and adaptive immune systems, as well as host-microbiota interactions, we discuss strategies for the development of such metalloimmunotherapies for the treatment of cancer and other immune-related diseases.

Chiral porphyrin-SiO2 nano helices-based sensors for vapor enantiomers recognition

The ability of olfaction to distinguish odors is based on many different properties deriving from the molecular structure, including chirality. Even if the electronic nose (e-nose) concept has been widely used in strict analogy with biological systems to implement sensor arrays that recognize and distinguish complex odor matrices, the fabrication of an enantioselective e-nose remains a challenge. This paper introduces an array of quartz microbalances (QMB) functionalized with sensitive materials made of a combination of achiral receptors and silica nanohelices grafted by chiral and achiral porphyrins. In this combination, nanohelices provide a chiral template for the spatial arrangement of porphyrins, while porphyrins act as receptors that can interact differently with analytes. Remarkably, even if single sensors show scarce enantioselectivity, the signals of the overall array achieve recognition of the chiral identity of the five diverse enantiomeric pairs tested when the data are processed with proper multivariate algorithms. Such an innovative and generalizable approach is expected to enable the formation of an extensive library of readily integrable chiral receptors in enantioselective sensor arrays, potentially revolutionizing diverse fields such as agrochemicals, medicine, and environmental sciences.

Theranostics Using MCM-41-Based Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles: Integrating Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Novel Chemotherapy for Breast Cancer Treatment

Advanced breast cancer remains a significant oncological challenge, requiring new approaches to improve clinical outcomes. This study investigated an innovative theranostic agent using the MCM-41-NH2-DTPA-Gd3⁺-MIH nanomaterial, which combined MRI imaging for detection and a novel chemotherapy agent (MIH 2.4Bl) for treatment. The nanomaterial was based on the mesoporous silica type, MCM-41, and was optimized for drug delivery via functionalization with amine groups and conjugation with DTPA and complexation with Gd3+. MRI sensitivity was enhanced by using gadolinium-based contrast agents, which are crucial in identifying early neoplastic lesions. MIH 2.4Bl, with its unique mesoionic structure, allows effective interactions with biomolecules that facilitate its intracellular antitumoral activity. Physicochemical characterization confirmed the nanomaterial synthesis and effective drug incorporation, with 15% of MIH 2.4Bl being adsorbed. Drug release assays indicated that approximately 50% was released within 8 h. MRI phantom studies demonstrated the superior imaging capability of the nanomaterial, with a relaxivity significantly higher than that of the commercial agent Magnevist. In vitro cellular cytotoxicity assays, the effectiveness of the nanomaterial in killing MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells was demonstrated at an EC50 concentration of 12.6 mg/mL compared to an EC50 concentration of 68.9 mg/mL in normal human mammary epithelial cells (HMECs). In vivo, MRI evaluation in a 4T1 syngeneic mouse model confirmed its efficacy as a contrast agent. This study highlighted the theranostic capabilities of MCM-41-NH2-DTPA-Gd3⁺-MIH and its potential to enhance breast cancer management.

Involvement of O2·- release in zearalenone-induced hormesis of intestinal porcine enterocytes: An electrochemical sensor-based analysis

Relationship between mycotoxin-induced hormesis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) has not been systematically investigated due to the lack of an effective analysis method. To monitor cellular release and intracellular level of O2·-, carboxymethyl cellulose-Mn3(PO4)2 nanocomposite was synthesized to fabricate an electrochemical biosensor, which selectively detects O2·- over the range of 57.50 nM ∼ 2.95 μM (R2 = 0.99) with the sensitivity of 78.67 μA μM-1 cm-2 and the detection limit of 8.47 nM. Transient exposure to zearalenone (ZEA) induces the enhancement on cell viability, immediate O2·- release from cells, and reduction of intracellular O2·- level. After post-treatment culture, intracellular O2·- initially increases to a high level and then decreases to the normal level. Concurrently, the ZEA-induced hormesis disappears. Based on the findings, we propose a mechanism, involving the ROS release, increase of succinate dehydrogenase activity and recovery of intracellular ROS, to explain the occurrence and disappearance of hormesis in intestinal porcine enterocytes.

Exploration of nanozymes in viral diagnosis and therapy

Nanozymes are nanomaterials with similar catalytic activities to natural enzymes. Compared with natural enzymes, they have numerous advantages, including higher physiochemical stability, versatility, and suitability for mass production. In the past decade, the synthesis of nanozymes and their catalytic mechanisms have advanced beyond the simple replacement of natural enzymes, allowing for fascinating applications in various fields such as biosensing and disease treatment. In particular, the exploration of nanozymes as powerful toolkits in diagnostic viral testing and antiviral therapy has attracted growing attention. It can address the great challenges faced by current natural enzyme-based viral testing technologies, such as high cost and storage difficulties. Therefore, nanozyme can provide a novel nanozyme-based antiviral therapeutic regime with broader availability and generalizability that are keys to fighting a pandemic such as COVID-19. Herein, we provide a timely review of the state-of-the-art nanozymes regarding their catalytic activities, as well as a focused discussion on recent research into the use of nanozymes in viral testing and therapy. The remaining challenges and future perspectives will also be outlined. Ultimately, this review will inform readers of the current knowledge of nanozymes and inspire more innovative studies to push forward the frontier of this field.

Detection strategies for superoxide anion: A review

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play an essential role in regulating various physiological functions of living organisms. Superoxide anion (O₂^-.), one kind of ROS, is the single-electron reduction product of oxygen molecules, which mainly exists in plants and animals, and is closely related to many inflammatory diseases. In the field of biomedicine, with the deepening understanding of superoxide anion, more and more detection methods have been developed. This review mainly introduces the detection techniques for superoxide anion in recent years.

Optical/electrochemical methods for detecting mitochondrial energy metabolism

This review highlights the biological importance of mitochondrial energy metabolism and the applications of multiple optical/electrochemical approaches to determine energy metabolites. Mitochondria, the main sites of oxidative phosphorylation and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) biosynthesis, provide the majority of energy required by aerobic cells for maintaining their physiological activity. They also participate in cell growth, differentiation, information transmission, and apoptosis. Multiple mitochondrial diseases, caused by internal or external factors, including oxidative stress, intense fluctuations of the ionic concentration, abnormal oxidative phosphorylation, changes in electron transport chain complex enzymes and mutations in mitochondrial DNA, can occur during mitochondrial energy metabolism. Therefore, developing accurate, sensitive, and specific methods for the in vivo and in vitro detection of mitochondrial energy metabolites is of great importance. In this review, we summarise the mitochondrial structure, functions, and crucial energy metabolic signalling pathways. The mechanism and applications of different optical/electrochemical methods are thoroughly reviewed. Finally, future research directions and challenges are proposed.

Alendronate-Modified Nanoceria with Multiantioxidant Enzyme-Mimetic Activity for Reactive Oxygen Species/Reactive Nitrogen Species Scavenging from Cigarette Smoke

Highly toxic radicals including reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in cigarette smoke play an important role in oxidative damage of the lungs, which cannot be efficiently scavenged by current filter techniques. Herein, a novel alendronate-coated nanoceria (CeAL) nanozyme is explored for cigarette filter modification for ROS/RNS scavenging. The CeAL nanozyme with an adjustable oxidation state and high thermal stability exhibits an excellent superoxide dismutase (SOD)-like activity, hydroxyl radical elimination capacity, catalase-mimicking activity, and nitric oxide radical scavenging ability. These synergistic antioxidant abilities make the CeAL nanozyme a lucrative additive for cigarette filters. The filter incorporated with the CeAL nanozyme can efficiently scavenge ROS/RNS in the hot smoke generated by burned commercial cigarettes, resulting in reduction of oxidative stress-induced pulmonary injury and acute inflammation of mice. The developed CeAL nanozyme opens up new opportunities for cigarette filter modification to decrease the toxicity of cigarette smoke and expands the application fields of nanoceria.

Potentiality of Nanoenzymes for Cancer Treatment and Other Diseases: Current Status and Future Challenges

Studies from past years have observed various enzymes that are artificial, which are issued to mimic naturally occurring enzymes based on their function and structure. The nanozymes possess nanomaterials that resemble natural enzymes and are considered an innovative class. This innovative class has achieved a brilliant response from various developments and researchers owing to this unique property. In this regard, numerous nanomaterials are inspected as natural enzyme mimics for multiple types of applications, such as imaging, water treatment, therapeutics, and sensing. Nanozymes have nanomaterial properties occurring with an inheritance that provides a single substitute and multiple platforms. Nanozymes can be controlled remotely via stimuli including heat, light, magnetic field, and ultrasound. Collectively, these all can be used to increase the therapeutic as well as diagnostic efficacies. These nanozymes have major biomedical applications including cancer therapy and diagnosis, medical diagnostics, and bio sensing. We summarized and emphasized the latest progress of nanozymes, including their biomedical mechanisms and applications involving synergistic and remote control nanozymes. Finally, we cover the challenges and limitations of further improving therapeutic applications and provide a future direction for using engineered nanozymes with enhanced biomedical and diagnostic applications.

Aqueous Synthesis of Manganese Phosphate Hydrate Crystals for Creating Inorganic Pigment Materials

Manganese phosphate hydrate crystals were prepared from aqueous solutions containing MnCl₂, (NH₄)₂HPO₄, and citric acid. Switzerite [Mn₃(PO₄)₂·7H₂O] and niahite (NH₄MnPO₄·H₂O) phases were produced at room temperature, and then, hureaulite [Mn₅(PO₃OH)₂(PO₄)₂·4H₂O] particles were obtained by aging at 80 °C or by hydrothermal treatment at 100-180 °C. The lower aging temperature (80 °C) and the chelation of Mn²⁺ ions by citric acid provided a slower crystal growth, resulting in large hexagonal prism blocks of ca. 500 μm in size. These were found to be single crystals of hureaulite by powder and single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy and evaluation using L*a*b* color parameters indicated that the large single crystals present a vivid pink color and high transparency.

Detection Technologies for Reactive Oxygen Species: Fluorescence and Electrochemical Methods and Their Applications

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been found in plants, mammals, and natural environmental processes. The presence of ROS in mammals has been linked to the development of severe diseases, such as diabetes, cancer, tumors, and several neurodegenerative conditions. The most common ROS involved in human health are superoxide (O2•-), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radicals (•OH). Organic and inorganic molecules have been integrated with various methods to detect and monitor ROS for understanding the effect of their presence and concentration on diseases caused by oxidative stress. Among several techniques, fluorescence and electrochemical methods have been recently developed and employed for the detection of ROS. This literature review intends to critically discuss the development of these techniques to date, as well as their application for in vitro and in vivo ROS detection regarding free-radical-related diseases. Moreover, important insights into and further steps for using fluorescence and electrochemical methods in the detection of ROS are presented.

Dansyl-Labelled Ag@SiO2 Core-Shell Nanostructures-Synthesis, Characterization, and Metal-Enhanced Fluorescence

The present work describes synthesis, characterization, and use of a new dansyl-labelled Ag@SiO2 nanocomposite as an element of a new plasmonic platform to enhance the fluorescence intensity. Keeping in mind that typical surface plasmon resonance (SPR) characteristics of silver nanoparticles coincide well enough with the absorption of dansyl molecules, we used them to build the core of the nanocomposite. Moreover, we utilized 10 nm amino-functionalized silica shell as a separator between silver nanoparticles and the dansyl dye to prevent the dye-to-metal energy transfer. The dansyl group was incorporated into Ag@SiO2 core-shell nanostructures by the reaction of aminopropyltrimethoxysilane with dansyl chloride and we characterized the new dansyl-labelled Ag@SiO2 nanocomposite using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Additionally, water wettability measurements (WWM) were carried out to assess the hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity of the studied surface. We found that the nanocomposite deposited on a semitransparent silver mirror strongly increased the fluorescence intensity of dansyl dye (about 87-fold) compared with the control sample on the glass, proving that the system is a perfect candidate for a sensitive plasmonic platform.

Recent Trends in Electrochemical Sensors for Vital Biomedical Markers Using Hybrid Nanostructured Materials

This work provides a succinct insight into the recent developments in electrochemical quantification of vital biomedical markers using hybrid metallic composite nanostructures. After a brief introduction to the biomarkers, five types of crucial biomarkers, which require timely and periodical monitoring, are shortlisted, namely, cancer, cardiac, inflammatory, diabetic and renal biomarkers. This review emphasizes the usage and advantages of hybrid nanostructured materials as the recognition matrices toward the detection of vital biomarkers. Different transduction methods (fluorescence, electrophoresis, chemiluminescence, electrochemiluminescence, surface plasmon resonance, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy) reported for the biomarkers are discussed comprehensively to present an overview of the current research works. Recent advancements in the electrochemical (amperometric, voltammetric, and impedimetric) sensor systems constructed with metal nanoparticle-derived hybrid composite nanostructures toward the selective detection of chosen vital biomarkers are specifically analyzed. It describes the challenges involved and the strategies reported for the development of selective, sensitive, and disposable electrochemical biosensors with the details of fabrication, functionalization, and applications of hybrid metallic composite nanostructures.

One-step hydroxylation of benzene to phenol over Schiff base complexes incorporated onto mesoporous organosilica in the presence of different axial ligands

Liquid-phase hydroxylation of benzene to phenol using Schiff base complexes anchored on a mesoporous organosilica support was investigated in various solvents when molecular oxygen was utilized as a green oxidant.

Guided Assembly of Microporous/Mesoporous Manganese Phosphates by Bifunctional Organophosphonic Acid Etching and Templating

Manganese (Mn)-based compounds are important materials for both energy conversion and energy storage. Unfortunately, it has been a significant challenge to develop highly ordered microporous/mesoporous structures for them to provide more active sites for these applications. In order to do so using the soft-templating method, three conditions have to be met, namely, a strong interaction between the inorganic precursor and the organic templates; eliminating the formation of bulk manganese phosphate; and the preservation of the manganese phosphate framework without it collapsing upon template removal. Herein, a soft-templating approach is reported using an organophosphonic acid (n-hexylphosphonic acid) as both the etching and the templating agent, followed by high-vacuum-assisted annealing. This approach simultaneously satisfies the above conditions. Both microporous and mesoporous manganese phosphates with uniform pore sizes and well-defined pore structures are obtained. The utilization of the organophosphonic acid is shown to be the key in the transformation from bulk manganese oxide into a highly ordered microporous phosphate. A very high surface area of 304.1 m² g^-1 is obtained for the microporous manganese phosphate, which is the highest among the reported values for Mn-based compounds. The ultrafine micropores and high specific surface area of our manganese phosphate promote electrocatalytic activity for the oxygen evolution reaction.

Electrochemical detection of superoxide anions in HeLa cells by using two enzyme-free sensors prepared from ZIF-8-derived carbon nanomaterials

Two kinds of carbon-based nanozymes were constructed from the same precursor of zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) for O₂^•- determination. Hollow carbon cubic nanomaterial (labelled as HCC) was obtained by chemically etching ZIF-8 with tannic acid and a subsequent calcination. A porous carbon cubic nanomaterial (labelled as PCC) was prepared by directly pyrolysis. Then HCC and PCC were immobilized on the surface of screen printed carbon electrodes (SPCE), fabricating HCC and PCC modified electrodes (denoted as HCC/SPCE and PCC/SPCE). HCC/SPCE, best operated at -0.5 V (vs. Ag/AgCl), has a sensitivity of 6.55 × 10² nA μM^-1 cm^-2 with a detection limit of 207 nM (at S/N = 3) for O₂^•- sensing. And PCC/SPCE, best operated at -0.4 V (vs. Ag/AgCl), exhibited a superior performance for O₂^•- detection with a sensitivity of 1.14 × 10³ nA μM^-1 cm^-2 and a low detection limit of 140 nM (at S/N = 3). The two sensors possess excellent reproducibility and stability. They were used to sense O₂^•- released from HeLa cells. Graphical abstract Illustration of the synthesis of the hollow carbon cubic nanomaterial (HCC) and of the porous carbon cubic nanomaterial (PCC), and the scheme for detection of superoxide anions in HeLa cell.

Carbon-mediated synthesis of shape-controllable manganese phosphate as nanozymes for modulation of superoxide anions in HeLa cells

Here we present a facile method to fabricate shape-controllable transition metal phosphates by using hollow carbon structures as substrates for superoxide sensing.

Nanomaterials with enzyme-like characteristics (nanozymes): next-generation artificial enzymes (II)

An updated comprehensive review to help researchers understand nanozymes better and in turn to advance the field.

Near-Infrared-Light-Activatable Nanomaterial-Mediated Phototheranostic Nanomedicines: An Emerging Paradigm for Cancer Treatment

Cancer is one of the most deadly diseases threatening the lives of humans. Although many treatment methods have been developed to tackle cancer, each modality of cancer treatment has its own limitations and drawbacks. The development of minimally invasive treatment modalities for cancers remains a great challenge. Near-infrared (NIR) light-activated nanomaterial-mediated phototherapies, including photothermal and photodynamic therapies, provide an alternative means for spatially and temporally controlled minimally invasive treatments of cancers. Nanomaterials can serve as nanocargoes for the delivery of chemo-drugs, diagnostic contrast reagents, and organic photosensitizers, and can be used to directly generate heat or reactive oxygen species for the treatment of tumors without the need for organic photosensitizers with NIR-light irradiation. Here, current progress in NIR-light-activated nanomaterial-mediated photothermal therapy and photodynamic therapy is summarized. Furthermore, the effects of size, shape, and surface functionalities of nanomaterials on intracellular uptake, macrophage clearance, biodistribution, cytotoxicities, and biomedical efficacies are discussed. The use of various types of nanomaterials, such as gold nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and many other inorganic nanostructures, in combination with diagnostic and therapeutic modalities for solid tumors, is briefly reviewed.

DNA-induced synthesis of biomimetic enzyme for sensitive detection of superoxide anions released from live cell

In this work, we successfully fabricate a rapid, sensitive sensor for the detection of superoxide anions O2˙- based on graphene/DNA/Mn3(PO4)2 biomimetic enzyme. In the design, graphene is served as excellent carrier to improve the catalysis of Mn3(PO4)2 nanoparticles; and DNA adsorbed on graphene acts as medium to assist the growth of Mn3(PO4)2 on graphene. The fabricated graphene/DNA/Mn3(PO4)2 composites exhibit excellently electrochemical activity, significantly decrease the response time and increase the sensitivity of the sensor towards O2˙-. The successful detection of O2˙- released from cancer cell demonstrated its potential applications in biology and medicine.

Synthesis of manganese phosphate hybrid nanoflowers by collagen-templated biomineralization

Collagen provides an excellent biotemplate to modulate the morphology of manganese phosphate hybrid nanomaterials, leading to exquisite nanoflowers with branched petals.

Ratiometric fluorescence detection of superoxide anion based on AuNPs-BSA@Tb/GMP nanoscale coordination polymers

A novel ratiometric fluorescence nanosensor for superoxide anion (O₂^•- ) detection was designed with gold nanoparticles-bovine serum albumin (AuNPs-BSA)@terbium/guanosine monophosphate disodium (Tb/GMP) nanoscale coordination polymers (NCPs) (AuNPs-BSA@Tb/GMP NCPs). The abundant hydroxyl and amino groups of AuNPs-BSA acted as binding points for the self-assembly of Tb³⁺ and GMP to form core-shell AuNPs-BSA@Tb/GMP NCP nanosensors. The obtained probe exhibited the characteristic fluorescence emission of both AuNPs-BSA and Tb/GMP NCPs. The AuNPs-BSA not only acted as a template to accelerate the growth of Tb/GMP NCPs, but also could be used as the reference fluorescence for the detection of O₂^•- . The resulting AuNPs-BSA@Tb/GMP NCP ratiometric fluorescence nanosensor for the detection of O₂^•- demonstrated high sensitivity and selectivity with a wide linear response range (14 nM-10 μM) and a low detection limit (4.7 nM).

Glycine-functionalized copper(ii) hydroxide nanoparticles with high intrinsic superoxide dismutase activity

Superoxide dismutases (SOD) are a group of enzymes that catalyze the dismutation of superoxide (O₂^-) radicals into molecular oxygen (O₂) and H₂O₂ as a first line of defense against oxidative stress. Here, we show that glycine-functionalized copper(ii) hydroxide nanoparticles (Gly-Cu(OH)₂ NPs) are functional SOD mimics, whereas bulk Cu(OH)₂ is insoluble in water and catalytically inactive. In contrast, Gly-Cu(OH)₂ NPs form water-dispersible mesocrystals with a SOD-like activity that is larger than that of their natural CuZn enzyme counterpart. Based on this finding, we devised an application where Gly-Cu(OH)₂ NPs were incorporated into cigarette filters. Cigarette smoke contains high concentrations of toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS, >10¹⁶ molecules per puff) including superoxide and reactive nitrogen species which lead to the development of chronic and degenerative diseases via oxidative damage and subsequent cell death. Embedded in cigarette filters Gly-Cu(OH)₂ NPs efficiently removed ROS from smoke, thereby protecting lung cancer cell lines from cytotoxic effects. Their stability, ease of production and versatility make them a powerful tool for a wide range of applications in environmental chemistry, biotechnology and medicine.

Bioapplications of Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors

Recent progress in the electrochemical field enabled development of miniaturized sensing devices that can be used in biological settings to obtain fundamental and practical biochemically relevant information on physiology, metabolism, and disease states in living systems. Electrochemical sensors and biosensors have demonstrated potential for rapid, real-time measurements of biologically relevant molecules. This chapter provides an overview of the most recent advances in the development of miniaturized sensors for biological investigations in living systems, with focus on the detection of neurotransmitters and oxidative stress markers. The design of electrochemical (bio)sensors, including their detection mechanism and functionality in biological systems, is described as well as their advantages and limitations. Application of these sensors to studies in live cells, embryonic development, and rodent models is discussed.

A novel H2O2 biosensor based on three-dimensional micro/nano-biointerfaces

A novel H₂O₂ biosensor was first reported to directly grow living cells on three-dimensional micro/nano-biointerfaces to promote electrochemical performance.