Identification of mangiferin as a potential Glucokinase activator by structure-based virtual ligand screening

ADME, Toxicity, Molecular Docking, Molecular Dynamics, Glucokinase activation, DPP-IV, α-amylase, and α-glucosidase Inhibition Assays of Mangiferin and Friedelin for Antidiabetic Potential

Today the alarming situation of diabetes seeks innovative antidiabetic medications, especially those derived from natural sources, as natural substances are safer than manufactured pharmaceuticals. Therefore, this study investigated the inhibitory properties of mangiferin and friedelin against glucokinase (GK), dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV), α-amylase, and α-glucosidase using computational methods, in vitro enzyme assays, and in-depth ADMET analysis. The study utilized a computer-aided drug design approach to assess the potential therapeutic properties of mangiferin and friedelin as Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) therapeutic agents. Molecular docking studies' outcomes encouraged the evaluation of both compounds in in vitro enzymatic assays. The docking study results were validated with the help of molecular dynamics simulation. Mangiferin and friedelin showed that they activated GK 20% and 5% more than the basal activity of the enzyme, respectively. In the DPP-IV enzyme assay, mangiferin and friedelin demonstrated IC50 values (74.93 ± 0.71 and 110.64 ± 0.21 µg/mL, respectively) comparable with the reference compound sitagliptin. Moreover, mangiferin and friedelin showed IC50 comparable to acarbose against α-amylase (9.72 ± 0.15, 11.84 ± 0.06, and 10.19 ± 0.05 mg/mL, respectively). In the α-glucosidase enzyme assay, mangiferin, friedelin, and acarbose displayed 11.72 ± 0.10, 14.34 ± 0.02, and 9.14 ± 0.06 mg/mL of IC50 values, respectively. The compounds showed promising in silico ADMET and drug-likeness properties, with potential binding affinities with all enzymes. In vitro enzymatic assays showed mangiferin and friedelin activated GK 20% and 5% more than basal activity, with IC50 values comparable to acarbose.

Mangiferin prevents glucolipotoxicity-induced pancreatic beta-cell injury through modulation of autophagy via AMPK-mTOR signaling pathway

The aim of this study was to investigate the protective effects of Mangiferin (MG) on glucolipotoxicity-induced pancreatic beta-cell injury. In vivo administration of MG significantly reduced the level of blood glucose in high-fat diet (HFD)-fed mice. MG treatment inhibited beta-cell apoptosis in HFD-treated mice. In vitro, MG protected INS-1 cells against apoptosis and impairment of insulin secretion following High glucose/Palmitic acid (HG/PA) treatment. MG treatment enhanced autophagy flux which was blocked by HG/PA treatment. Inhibition of autophagosome formation by 3-Methyladenine or blockade of autolysosome by Chloroquine reversed the protective effects of MG on INS-1 cells. MG treatment increased AMPK phosphorylation and reduced mTOR activation in INS-1 cells. Administration of the AMPK blocker abrogated MG-induced autophagy, and similar results were observed in INS-1 cells after cotreatment with MG and mTOR activator. In conclusion, MG ameliorated pancreatic beta-cell injury induced by glucolipotoxicity through modulation of autophagy via the AMPK-mTOR pathway.

In silico docking based screening of constituents from Persian shallot as modulators of human glucokinase

Purpose

Small molecule glucokinase (GK) modulators not only decrease fasting and basal plasma sugar contents but also progress glucose tolerance. The hydro-ethanolic extract of the Persian shallot (Allium hirtifolium Boiss.) decreased blood glucose, improved plasma insulin and amplified GK action. The present study was proposed to screen phytoconstituents from Persian shallot as human GK activators using in silico docking studies.

Methods

A total of 91 phytoconstituents reported in Persian shallot (A. hirtifolium Boiss.) were assessed in silico for the prediction of drug-like properties and molecular docking investigations were carried out with human GK using AutoDock vina with the aim of exploring the binding interactions between the phytoconstituents and GK enzyme followed by in silico prediction of toxicity.

Results

Almost all the phytoconstituents tested showed good pharmacokinetic parameters for oral bioavailability and drug-likeness. In the docking analysis, cinnamic acid, methyl 3,4,5-trimethoxy benzoate, quercetin, kaempferol, kaempferol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1- > 4)-glucopyranoside, 5-hydroxy-methyl furfural, ethyl N-(O-anisyl) formimidate, 2-pyridinethione and ascorbic acid showed appreciable hydrogen bond and hydrophobic type interactions with the allosteric site residues of the GK enzyme.

Conclusion

These screened phytoconstituents may serve as promising hit molecules for further development of clinically beneficial and safe allosteric activators of the human GK enzyme.

Identification of structural scaffold from interbioscreen (IBS) database to inhibit 3CLpro, PLpro, and RdRp of SARS-CoV-2 using molecular docking and dynamic simulation studies

A novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has caused a worldwide pandemic and remained a severe threat to the entire human population. Researchers worldwide are struggling to find an effective drug treatment to combat this deadly disease. Many FDA-approved drugs from varying inhibitory classes and plant-derived compounds are screened to combat this virus. Still, due to the lack of structural information and several mutations of this virus, initial drug discovery efforts have limited success. A high-resolution crystal structure of important proteins like the main protease (3CLpro) that are required for SARS-CoV-2 viral replication and polymerase (RdRp) and papain-like protease (PLpro) as a vital target in other coronaviruses still presents important targets for the drug discovery. With this knowledge, scaffold library of Interbioscreen (IBS) database was explored through molecular docking, MD simulation and postdynamic binding free energy studies. The 3D docking structures and simulation data for the IBS compounds was studied and articulated. The compounds were further evaluated for ADMET studies using QikProp and SwissADME tools. The results revealed that the natural compounds STOCK2N-00385, STOCK2N-00244, and STOCK2N-00331 interacted strongly with 3CLpro, PLpro, and RdRp, respectively, and ADMET data was also observed in the range of limits for almost all the compounds with few exceptions. Thus, it suggests that these compounds may be potential inhibitors of selected target proteins, or their structural scaffolds can be further optimized to obtain effective drug candidates for SARS-CoV-2. The findings of in-silico data need to be supported by in-vivo studies which could shed light on understanding the exact mode of inhibitory action.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Targeting human Glucokinase for the treatment of type 2 diabetes: an overview of allosteric Glucokinase activators

Diabetes mellitus is a worldwide impacting disorder and the ratio through which the number of diabetic patients had increased worldwide, puts medical professionals to serious stress for its effective management. Due to its polygenic origin and involvement of multiple genes to its pathophysiology, leads to understanding of this ailment more complex. It seems that current interventions, such as dietary changes, life style changes and drug therapy such as oral hypoglycaemics and insulin, are unable to halt the trend. There are various novel and emerging targets on which the researchers are paying attention to combat with this ailment successfully. Human glucokinase (GK) enzyme is one of these novel and emerging targets for management of diabetes. Its availability in the pancreas and liver cells makes this target more lucrative. GK's presence in the pancreatic and hepatic cells plays a very important function for the management of glucose homoeostasis. Small molecules that activate GK allosterically provide an alternative strategy for restoring/improving glycaemic regulation, especially in type 2 diabetic patients. Although after enduring many setbacks in the development of the GK activators, interest has been renewed especially due to introduction of novel dual acting GK activator dorzagliatin, and a novel hepato-selective GK activator, TTP399. This review article has been formulated to discuss importance of GK in glucose homeostasis, recent updates on small molecules of GK activators, clinical status of GK activators and challenges in development of GK activators.

Ziprasidone suppresses pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell proliferation by targeting GOT1 to trigger glutamine metabolism reprogramming

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a fatal malignant tumor whose effective treatment has not been found. The redox state and proliferative activity of PDAC cells are maintained by the conversion of aspartic acid in the cytoplasm into oxaloacetate though aspartate aminotransferase 1 (GOT1). Therefore, GOT1 inhibitors as a potential approach for treating PDAC have attracted more attention of researchers. Ziprasidone effectively inhibited GOT1 in a non-competitive manner. The potential cytotoxicity and anti-proliferation effects of ziprasidone against PDAC cells in vitro and in vivo were evaluated. Ziprasidone can induce glutamine metabolism disorder and redox state imbalance of PDAC cells by targeting GOT1, thereby inhibiting proliferation, preventing migration, and inducing apoptosis. Ziprasidone displayed significant in vivo antitumor efficacy in SW1990 cell-derived xenografts. What's more, knockdown of GOT1 in SW1990 reduced the anti-proliferative effects of ziprasidone. As a novel GOT1 inhibitor, ziprasidone may be a lead compound for the treatment of PDAC. KEY MESSAGES: Small molecule inhibitors targeting GOT1 may provide a therapeutic target in PDAC. Ziprasidone effectively inhibited GOT1 enzyme in a non-competitive manner. Ziprasidone repressed glutamine metabolism and inhibited the growth of tumor in vivo. Knockdown of GOT1 decreased the anti-proliferative effects of ziprasidone.

Advances in computer-aided drug design for type 2 diabetes

INTRODUCTION

The number of diabetic patients is increasing, posing a heavy social and economic burden worldwide. Traditional drug development technology is time-consuming and costly, and the emergence of computer-aided drug design (CADD) has changed this situation. This study reviews the applications of CADD in diabetic drug designing.

AREAS COVERED

In this article, the authors focus on the advance in CADD in diabetic drug design by elaborating the discovery, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR), G protein-coupled receptor 40 (GPR40), dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DDP-IV), protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B), sodium-dependent glucose transporter 2 (SGLT-2), and glucokinase (GK). Some drug discovery of these targets is related to CADD strategies.

EXPERT OPINION

There is no doubt that CADD has contributed to the discovery of novel anti-diabetic agents. However, there are still many limitations and challenges, such as lack of co-crystal complex, dynamic simulations, water, and metal ion treatment. In the near future, artificial intelligence (AI) may be a promising strategy to accelerate drug discovery and reduce costs by identifying candidates. Moreover, AlphaFold, a deep learning model that predicts the 3D structure of proteins, represents a considerable advancement in the structural prediction of proteins, especially in the absence of homologous templates for protein structures.

Design, Synthesis, Molecular Docking and In vitro Biological Evaluation of Benzamide Derivatives as Novel Glucokinase Activators

Background:

Glucokinase (GK) is a cytoplasmic enzyme that metabolises glucose to glucose-6-phosphate and supports adjusting blood glucose levels within the normal range in humans. In pancreatic β-cells, it plays a leading role in governing the glucose-stimulated secretion of insulin, and in liver hepatocyte cells, it controls the metabolism of carbohydrates. GK acts as a promising drug target for treating patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

Objectives:

The present work has been designed to discover some novel substituted benzamide derivatives

Method:

This work involved designing novel benzamide derivatives and their screening by docking studies to determine the binding interactions for the best-fit conformations in the binding site of the GK enzyme. Based on the results of docking studies, the selected molecules were synthesized and tested for in vitro GK enzyme assay. The structures of newly synthesized products were confirmed by IR, NMR, and mass spectroscopy.

Results:

Amongst the designed derivatives, compounds 4c, 4d, 4e, 5h, 5j, 5l, 5m, 5n, 5p, and 5r have shown better binding energy than the native ligand present in the enzyme structure. The synthesized compounds were subjected to in vitro GK enzyme assay. Out of all, compounds 4c, 4d, 5h, 5l, and 5n showed more GK activation than control.

Conclusion::

From the present results, we have concluded that the synthesized derivatives can activate the human GK enzyme effectively, which can be helpful in the treatment of T2DM.

Omnifarious fruit polyphenols: an omnipotent strategy to prevent and intervene diabetes and related complication?

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic syndrome which cannot be cured. Recently, considerable interest has been focused on food ingredients to prevent and intervene in complications of diabetes. Polyphenolic compounds are one of the bioactive phytochemical constituents with various biological activities, which have drawn increasing interest in human health. Fruits are part of the polyphenol sources in daily food consumption. Fruit-derived polyphenols possess the anti-diabetic activity that has already been proved either from in vitro studies or in vivo studies. The mechanisms of fruit polyphenols in treating diabetes and related complications are under discussion. This is a comprehensive review on polyphenols from the edible parts of fruits, including those from citrus, berries, apples, cherries, mangoes, mangosteens, pomegranates, and other fruits regarding their potential benefits in preventing and treating diabetes mellitus. The signal pathways of characteristic polyphenols derived from fruits in reducing high blood glucose and intervening hyperglycemia-induced diabetic complications were summarized.

Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic dual activities of extracts and flavonoids from Desmodium caudatum and an efficient synthesis of the most potent 8-prenylquercetin

Since glucolipid metabolism disorders is often the mono-target therapy fails in managing blood glucose and lipid levels and the other complications, it is urgent and necessary to seek for the new potential drugs or functional food acting on multi-targets. The hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic dual activities of the root, stems and leaves of Desmodium caudatum, which is used for traditional Chinese medicine, was evaluated. Twelve extracts with different extraction conditions were prepared and extract 9 was find to exhibit potential inhibitory activities of fructose-1, 6-bisphosphatase (FBPase), α-glucosidase, and pancrelipase, as well as promote cellular glucose consumption and reduce cellular content of lipid. Five flavonoids were isolated and identified from extract 9, among which 8-prenylquercetin exhibited potent α-glucosidase (IC₅₀ = 4.38 μM) and FBPase (IC₅₀ = 3.62 μM) dual inhibitory activity, which were 75-fold higher than acarbose (IC₅₀ = 330.10 μM) and comparable with AMP (IC₅₀ = 2.92 μM). In addition, 8-prenylquercetin was able to promote glucose consumption and reduce lipid content. Besides, an efficient synthesis of the most potent 8-prenylquercetin was developed from inexpensive and commercially available rutin in 21% overall yield by 6 steps, which lay the foundation of preparation sufficient amount for follow-up study.

A comprehensive review on glucokinase activators: Promising agents for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes

Glucokinase is a key enzyme which converts glucose into glucose-6-phosphate in the liver and pancreatic cells of the human. In the liver, glucokinase promotes the synthesis of glycogen, and in the pancreas, it helps in glucose-sensitive insulin release. It serves as a "glucose sensor" and thereby plays an important role in the regulation of glucose homeostasis. Due to this activity, glucokinase is considered as an attractive drug target for type 2 diabetes. It created a lot of interest among the researchers, and several small molecules were discovered. The research work was initiated in 1990. However, the hypoglycemic effect, increased liver burden, and loss of efficacy over time were faced during clinical development. Dorzagliatin, a novel glucokinase activator that acts on both the liver and pancreas, is in the late-stage clinical development. TTP399, a promising hepatoselective GK activator, showed a clinically significant and sustained reduction in glycated hemoglobin with a low risk of adverse effects. The successful findings generated immense interest to continue further research in finding small molecule GK activators for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. The article covers different series of GK activators reported over the past decade and the structural insights into the GK-GK activator binding which, we believe will stimulate the discovery of novel GK activators to treat type 2 diabetes.

Recent Developments in Medicinal Chemistry of Allosteric Activators of Human Glucokinase for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Therapeutics

BACKGROUND

Glucokinase (GK), a cytoplasmic enzyme catalyzes the metabolism of glucose to glucose- 6-phosphate with the help of ATP and aids in the controlling of blood glucose levels within the normal range in humans. In pancreatic β-cells, it plays a chief role by controlling the glucose-stimulated secretion of insulin and in liver hepatocyte cells, it controls the metabolism of carbohydrates. GK acts as a promising drug target for the pharmacological treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) as it plays an important role in the control of carbohydrate metabolism.

METHODS

Data used for this review was based on the search from several science databases as well as various patent databases. The main data search terms used were allosteric GK activators, diabetes mellitus, type 2 diabetes, glucokinase, glucokinase activators and human glucokinase.

RESULTS

This article discusses an overview of T2DM, the biology of GK, the role of GK in T2DM, recent updates in the development of small molecule GK activators reported in recent literature, mechanism of action of GK activators and their clinical status.

CONCLUSION

GK activators are the novel class of pharmacological agents that enhance the catalytic activity of GK enzyme and display their antihyperglycemic effects. Broad diversity of chemical entities including benzamide analogues, carboxamides, acrylamides, benzimidazoles, quinazolines, thiazoles, pyrimidines, pyridines, orotic acid amides, amino acid derivatives, amino phosphates and urea derivatives have been synthesized in past two decades as potent allosteric activators of GK. Presently, the pharmaceutical companies and researchers are focusing on the design and development of liver-selective GK activators for preventing the possible adverse effects associated with GK activators for the long-term treatment of T2DM.

Insights into the binding of dorzagliatin with glucokinase: A molecular dynamics simulation

Human glucokinase (GK) is a potentially attractive target for diabetes, playing a prominent role in the control of glucose homeostasis. Dorzagliatin is the first GK activator (GKA) to enter phase III clinical trial. In this study, the possible binding mode of dorzagliatin with GK was investigated via the molecular simulation method. Two other systems in the absence of dorzagliatin and glucose were also studied to disclose the roles of dorzagliatin and glucose. The outcomes revealed that dorzagliatin can create the characteristic hydrogen bonds of GKA with Arg63, and Arg63 can form hydrogen bonds with nearby residues, making a tight binding hydrogen bond network around dorzagliatin. The presence of dorzagliatin can stabilize glucokinase for a period of time, and the binding of glucose may prevent the GK conformational change to a certain extent. Our results may be beneficial to mechanism understanding of GKA, and will be useful in design of novel GKAs for treating metabolic diseases.

Potential Impact of the Multi-Target Drug Approach in the Treatment of Some Complex Diseases

It is essential to acknowledge the efforts made thus far to manage or eliminate various disease burden faced by humankind. However, the rising global trends of the so-called incurable diseases continue to put pressure on Pharma industries and other drug discovery platforms. In the past, drugs with more than one target were deemed as undesirable options with interest being on the one-drug-single target. Despite the successes of the single-target drugs, it is currently beyond doubt that these drugs have limited efficacy against complex diseases in which the pathogenesis is dependent on a set of biochemical events and several bioreceptors operating concomitantly. Different approaches have thus been proposed to come up with effective drugs to combat even the complex diseases. In the past, the focus was on producing drugs from screening plant compounds; today, we talk about combination therapy and multi-targeting drugs. The multi-target drugs have recently attracted much attention as promising tools to fight against most challenging diseases, and thus a new research focus area. This review will discuss the potential impact of multi-target drug approach on various complex diseases with focus on malaria, tuberculosis (TB), diabetes and neurodegenerative diseases as the main representatives of multifactorial diseases. We will also discuss alternative ideas to solve the current problems bearing in mind the fourth industrial revolution on drug discovery.

An Overview of Prospective Drugs for Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes

Aims:

The aim of this study is to provide an overview of several emerging anti-diabetic molecules.

Background:

Diabetes is a complex metabolic disorder involving the dysregulation of glucose homeostasis at various levels. Insulin, which is produced by β-pancreatic cells, is a chief regulator of glucose metabolism, regulating its consumption within cells, which leads to energy generation or storage as glycogen. Abnormally low insulin secretion from β-cells, insulin insensitivity, and insulin tolerance lead to higher plasma glucose levels, resulting in metabolic complications. The last century has witnessed extraordinary efforts by the scientific community to develop anti-diabetic drugs, and these efforts have resulted in the discovery of exogenous insulin and various classes of oral anti-diabetic drugs.

Objective:

Despite these exhaustive anti-diabetic pharmaceutical and therapeutic efforts, long-term glycemic control, hypoglycemic crisis, safety issues, large-scale economic burden and side effects remain the core problems.

Method:

The last decade has witnessed the development of various new classes of anti-diabetic drugs with different pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles. Details of their FDA approvals and advantages/disadvantages are summarized in this review.

Results:

The salient features of insulin degludec, sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors, glucokinase activators, fibroblast growth factor 21 receptor agonists, and GLP-1 agonists are discussed.

Conclusion :

In the future, these new anti-diabetic drugs may have broad clinical applicability. Additional multicenter clinical studies on these new drugs should be conducted.

The compromise of virtual screening and its impact on drug discovery

Introduction: Docking and structure-based virtual screening (VS) have been standard approaches in structure-based design for over two decades. However, our understanding of the limitations, potential, and strength of these techniques has enhanced, raising expectations. Areas covered: Based on a survey of reports in the past five years, we assess whether VS: (1) predicts binding poses in agreement with crystallographic data (when available); (2) is a superior screening tool, as often claimed; (3) is successful in identifying chemical scaffolds that can be starting points for subsequent lead optimization cycles. Data shows that knowledge of the target and its chemotypes in postprocessing lead to viable hits in early drug discovery endeavors. Expert opinion: VS is capable of accurate placements in the pocket for the most part, but does not consistently score screening collections accurately. What matters is capitalization on available resources to get closer to a viable lead or optimizable series. Integration of approaches, subjective hit selection guided by knowledge of the receptor or endogenous ligand, libraries driven by experimental guides, validation studies to identify the best docking/scoring that reproduces experimental findings, constraints regarding receptor-ligand interactions, thoroughly designed methodologies, and predefined cutoff scoring criteria strengthen VS's position in pharmaceutical research.

Nutraceuticals and Diet-based Phytochemicals in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: From Whole Food to Components with Defined Roles and Mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Over the past decades, the development and use of an array of prescription medications have considerably improved the clinical management of type 2 diabetes mellitus and the quality of life of patients. However, as our knowledge of the associated risk factors and approaches to its management increases, the increasing roles of diet and the composition of the diet in the etiology and successful management of diabetes mellitus are being illuminated. Presently, a lot of attention is being given to nutraceuticals and certain phytochemicals that are integral parts of the human diet. It is believed that a clearer understanding of their roles may be crucial to 'non-invasive' or minimallyintrusive management, with regards to daily living of patients. In this review, an overview of nutraceutical components and phytochemicals that may be of benefit, or had been known to be beneficial in diabetes mellitus is given. Also, how the roles of such dietary components are evolving in the management of this disorder is highlighted. Lastly, the obstacles that need to be overcome before nutraceuticals can be considered as options for the clinical management of diabetes mellitus areconsidered.

CONCLUSION

Despite studies that demonstrate their efficacy, no nutraceutical or food-derived compound has been formally adopted as a direct replacement for any class of antidiabetic drugs.

The Potential of South African Herbal Tisanes, Rooibos and Honeybush in the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disease that can lead to high morbidity, mortality and long-term complications. Available treatment strategies, which are mainly based on treating hyperglycemia, with insulin and other pharmacological agents are not completely efficient and can even lead to development of unwanted side effects. Scientific evidence suggests that bioactive compounds from teas and other plant-based foods, which are known source of natural antioxidants, could be an attractive strategy to preferentially treat and manage type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and thus, have significant therapeutic implications. In this review, we attempt an in-depth analysis and discussion of the current progress in our understanding of the antidiabetic potential of two commercialized South Africa herbal tisanes—Rooibos and Honeybush and their polyphenols.

Metabolism, pharmacokinetics, and hepatic disposition of xanthones and saponins on Zhimu treatments for exploratively interpreting the discrepancy between the herbal safety and timosaponin A3-induced hepatotoxicity

Timosaponin A3, a saponin in Zhimu, elicited hepatotoxicity via oxidative stress. However, the clinical medication of Zhimu has been historically regarded as safe, probably associated with the antioxidants it contains. However, the related information on the in vivo levels of timosaponin A3 and antioxidants remained unclear on Zhimu treatments. Therefore, a combination of the in vitro metabolism, including microbiota-mediated and liver-mediated metabolism, and in vivo pharmacokinetics and hepatic disposition, was conducted for three xanthones (neomangiferin, mangiferin, and norathyriol) and three saponins (timosaponin B2, timosaponin B3, and timosaponin A3) on Zhimu treatments. Consequently, following oral administration of Zhimu decoction to rats, those saponins and xanthones were all observed in the plasma with severe liver first-pass effect, where mangiferin was of the maximum exposure. Despite the ignorable content in the herb, timosaponin A3 elicited sizable hepatic exposure as the microbiota-mediated metabolite of saponins in Zhimu. The similar phenomenon also occurred to norathyriol, the microbiota-mediated metabolite of xanthones. However, the major prototypes in Zhimu were of limited hepatic exposure. We deduced the hepatic collection of norathyriol, maximum circulating levels of mangiferin, and timosaponin B2 and mangiferin interaction may directly or indirectly contribute to the whole anti-oxidation of Zhimu, and then resisted the timosaponin A3-induced hepatotoxicity. Thus, our study exploratively interpreted the discrepancy between herbal safety and timosaponin A3-induced hepatotoxicity. However, given the considerable levels and slow eliminated rate of timosaponin A3 in the liver, more attention should be paid to the safety on the continuous clinical medication of Zhimu in the future.

Computational and Pharmacological Evaluation of Ferrocene-Based Acyl Ureas and Homoleptic Cadmium Carboxylate Derivatives for Anti-diabetic Potential

We investigated possible anti-diabetic effect of ferrocene-based acyl ureas: 4-ferrocenyl aniline (PFA), 1-(4-chlorobenzoyl)-3-(4-ferrocenylphenyl) urea (DPC1), 1-(3-chlorobenzoyl)-3-(4-ferrocenylphenyl) urea (DMC1), 1-(2-chlorobenzoyl)-3-(4-ferrocenylphenyl) urea (DOC1) and homoleptic cadmium carboxylates: bis (diphenylacetato) cadmium (II) (DPAA), bis (4-chlorophenylacetato) cadmium (II) (CPAA), using in silico and in vivo techniques. PFA, DPC1, DMC1, DOC1, DPAA and CPAA exhibited high binding affinities (ACE ≥ −350 Kcal/mol) against targets: aldose reductase, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-1, C-alpha glucosidase and glucokinase, while showed moderate affinities (ACE ≥ −250 Kcal/mol) against N-alpha glucosidase, dipeptidyl peptidase-IV, phosphorylated-Akt, glycogen synthase kinase-3β, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, whereas revealed lower affinities (ACE < −250 Kcal/mol) vs. alpha amylase, protein tyrosine phosphatases 1B, glycogen phosphorylase and phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase. In alloxan (300 mg/Kg)-induced diabetic mice, DPAA and DPC1 (1–10 mg/Kg) at day 1, 5, 10, 15, and 20th decreased blood glucose levels, compared to diabetic control group and improved the treated animals body weight. DPAA (10 mg/Kg) and DPC1 (5 mg/Kg) in time-dependent manner (30–120 min.) enhanced tolerance of oral glucose overload in mice. DPAA and DPCI dose-dependently at 1, 5, and 10 mg/Kg decreased glycosylated hemoglobin levels in diabetic animals, as caused by metformin. These results indicate that aforementioned derivatives of ferrocene and cadmium possess anti-diabetic potential.

Natural products, an important resource for discovery of multitarget drugs and functional food for regulation of hepatic glucose metabolism

Imbalanced hepatic glucose homeostasis is one of the critical pathologic events in the development of metabolic syndromes (MSs). Therefore, regulation of imbalanced hepatic glucose homeostasis is important in drug development for MS treatment. In this review, we discuss the major targets that regulate hepatic glucose homeostasis in human physiologic and pathophysiologic processes, involving hepatic glucose uptake, glycolysis and glycogen synthesis, and summarize their changes in MSs. Recent literature suggests the necessity of multitarget drugs in the management of MS disorder for regulation of imbalanced glucose homeostasis in both experimental models and MS patients. Here, we highlight the potential bioactive compounds from natural products with medicinal or health care values, and focus on polypharmacologic and multitarget natural products with effects on various signaling pathways in hepatic glucose metabolism. This review shows the advantage and feasibility of discovering multicompound-multitarget drugs from natural products, and providing a new perspective of ways on drug and functional food development for MSs.