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Mao R, Hu M, Liu X, Ye L, Xu B, Sun M, Xu S, Shao W, Tan Y, Xu Y, Bai F, Shu S. Impairments of GABAergic transmission in hippocampus mediate increased susceptibility of epilepsy in the early stage of Alzheimer's disease. Cell Commun Signal 2024; 22:147. [PMID: 38388921 PMCID: PMC10885444 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-024-01528-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) are often co-morbid with unprovoked seizures, making clinical diagnosis and management difficult. Although it has an important role in both AD and epilepsy, abnormal γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic transmission is recognized only as a compensative change for glutamatergic damage. Neuregulin 1 (NRG1)-ErbB4 signaling can promote GABA release and suppress epileptogenesis, but its effects on cognition in AD are still controversial. METHODS Four-month-old APPswe/PS1dE9 mice (APP mice) were used as animal models in the early stage of AD in this study. Acute/chronic chemical-kindling epilepsy models were established with pentylenetetrazol. Electroencephalogram and Racine scores were performed to assess seizures. Behavioral tests were used to assess cognition and emotion. Electrophysiology, western blot and immunofluorescence were performed to detect the alterations in synapses, GABAergic system components and NRG1-ErbB4 signaling. Furthermore, NRG1 was administrated intracerebroventricularly into APP mice and then its antiepileptic and cognitive effects were evaluated. RESULTS APP mice had increased susceptibility to epilepsy and resulting hippocampal synaptic damage and cognitive impairment. Electrophysiological analysis revealed decreased GABAergic transmission in the hippocampus. This abnormal GABAergic transmission involved a reduction in the number of parvalbumin interneurons (PV+ Ins) and decreased levels of GABA synthesis and transport. We also found impaired NRG1-ErbB4 signaling which mediated by PV+ Ins loss. And NRG1 administration could effectively reduce seizures and improve cognition in four-month-old APP mice. CONCLUSION Our results indicated that abnormal GABAergic transmission mediated hippocampal hyperexcitability, further excitation/inhibition imbalance, and promoted epileptogenesis in the early stage of AD. Appropriate NRG1 administration could down-regulate seizure susceptibility and rescue cognitive function. Our study provided a potential direction for intervening in the co-morbidity of AD and epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Mao
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Institute of Translational Medicine for Brain Critical Diseases, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Mengsha Hu
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Xuan Liu
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Institute of Translational Medicine for Brain Critical Diseases, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Lei Ye
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Institute of Translational Medicine for Brain Critical Diseases, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Bingsong Xu
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Min Sun
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Institute of Translational Medicine for Brain Critical Diseases, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Siyi Xu
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Institute of Translational Medicine for Brain Critical Diseases, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Wenxuan Shao
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Institute of Translational Medicine for Brain Critical Diseases, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yi Tan
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Institute of Translational Medicine for Brain Critical Diseases, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yun Xu
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Institute of Translational Medicine for Brain Critical Diseases, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Discipline of Neurology, Nanjing, China.
- Nanjing Neurology Medical Center, Nanjing, China.
| | - Feng Bai
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Institute of Translational Medicine for Brain Critical Diseases, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Discipline of Neurology, Nanjing, China.
- Nanjing Neurology Medical Center, Nanjing, China.
| | - Shu Shu
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Institute of Translational Medicine for Brain Critical Diseases, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Discipline of Neurology, Nanjing, China.
- Nanjing Neurology Medical Center, Nanjing, China.
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Dysfunction of NRG1/ErbB4 Signaling in the Hippocampus Might Mediate Long-term Memory Decline After Systemic Inflammation. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:3210-3226. [PMID: 36840846 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03278-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/26/2023]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence has suggested that a great proportion of sepsis survivors suffer from long-term cognitive impairments after hospital discharge, leading to decreased life quality and substantial caregiving burdens for family members. However, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. In the present study, we established a mouse model of systemic inflammation by repeated lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injections. A combination of behavioral tests, biochemical, and in vivo electrophysiology techniques were conducted to test whether abnormal NRG1/ErbB4 signaling, parvalbumin (PV) interneurons, and hippocampal neural oscillations were involved in memory decline after repeated LPS injections. Here, we showed that LPS induced long-term memory decline, which was accompanied by dysfunction of NRG1/ErbB4 signaling and PV interneurons, and decreased theta and gamma oscillations. Notably, NRG1 treatment reversed LPS-induced decreases in p-ErbB4 and PV expressions, abnormalities in theta and gamma oscillations, and long-term memory decline. Together, our study demonstrated that dysfunction of NRG1/ErbB4 signaling in the hippocampus might mediate long-term memory decline in a mouse model of systemic inflammation induced by repeated LPS injections. Thus, targeting NRG1/ErbB4 signaling in the hippocampus may be promising for the prevention and treatment of this long-term memory decline.
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3
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Shiosaka S. Kallikrein 8: A key sheddase to strengthen and stabilize neural plasticity. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 140:104774. [PMID: 35820483 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Neural networks are modified and reorganized throughout life, even in the matured brain. Synapses in the networks form, change, or disappear dynamically in the plasticity state. The pre- and postsynaptic signaling, transmission, and structural dynamics have been studied considerably well. However, not many studies have shed light on the events in the synaptic cleft and intercellular space. Neural activity-dependent protein shedding is a phenomenon in which (1) presynaptic excitation evokes secretion or activation of sheddases, (2) sheddases are involved not only in cleavage of membrane- or matrix-bound proteins but also in mechanical modulation of cell-to-cell connectivity, and (3) freed activity domains of protein factors play a role in receptor-mediated or non-mediated biological actions. Kallikrein 8/neuropsin (KLK8) is a kallikrein family serine protease rich in the mammalian limbic brain. Accumulated evidence has suggested that KLK8 is an important modulator of neural plasticity and consequently, cognition. Insufficiency, as well as excess of KLK8 may have detrimental effects on limbic functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadao Shiosaka
- Osaka Psychiatric Research Center, Osaka Psychiatric Medical Center, Osaka Prefectural Hospital Organization, Miyanosaka 3-16-21, Hirakata-shi, Osaka 573-0022, Japan.
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4
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Harris AC, Jin XT, Greer JE, Povlishock JT, Jacobs KM. Somatostatin interneurons exhibit enhanced functional output and resilience to axotomy after mild traumatic brain injury. Neurobiol Dis 2022; 171:105801. [PMID: 35753625 PMCID: PMC9383472 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) gives rise to a remarkable breadth of pathobiological consequences, principal among which are traumatic axonal injury and perturbation of the functional integrity of neuronal networks that may arise secondary to the elimination of the presynaptic contribution of axotomized neurons. Because there exists a vast diversity of neocortical neuron subtypes, it is imperative to elucidate the relative vulnerability to axotomy among different subtypes. Toward this end, we exploited SOM-IRES-Cre mice to investigate the consequences of the central fluid percussion model of mTBI on the microanatomical integrity and the functional efficacy of the somatostatin (SOM) interneuron population, one of the principal subtypes of neocortical interneuron. We found that the SOM population is resilient to axotomy, representing only 10% of the global burden of inhibitory interneuron axotomy, a result congruous with past work demonstrating that parvalbumin (PV) interneurons bear most of the burden of interneuron axotomy. However, the intact structure of SOM interneurons after injury did not translate to normal cellular function. One day after mTBI, the SOM population is more intrinsically excitable and demonstrates enhanced synaptic efficacy upon post-synaptic layer 5 pyramidal neurons as measured by optogenetics, yet the global evoked inhibitory tone within layer 5 is stable. Simultaneously, there exists a significant increase in the frequency of miniature inhibitory post-synaptic currents within layer 5 pyramidal neurons. These results are consistent with a scheme in which 1 day after mTBI, SOM interneurons are stimulated to compensate for the release from inhibition of layer 5 pyramidal neurons secondary to the disproportionate axotomy of PV interneurons. The enhancement of SOM interneuron intrinsic excitability and synaptic efficacy may represent the initial phase of a dynamic process of attempted autoregulation of neocortical network homeostasis secondary to mTBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan C Harris
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, United States of America.
| | - Xiao-Tao Jin
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, United States of America.
| | - John E Greer
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, United States of America.
| | - John T Povlishock
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, United States of America.
| | - Kimberle M Jacobs
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, United States of America.
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5
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Liebert A, Pang V, Bicknell B, McLachlan C, Mitrofanis J, Kiat H. A Perspective on the Potential of Opsins as an Integral Mechanism of Photobiomodulation: It's Not Just the Eyes. Photobiomodul Photomed Laser Surg 2022; 40:123-135. [PMID: 34935507 DOI: 10.1089/photob.2021.0106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: To investigate the potential relationship between opsins and photobiomodulation. Background: Opsins and other photoreceptors occur in all phyla and are important in light-activated signaling and organism homeostasis. In addition to the visual opsin systems of the retina (OPN1 and OPN2), there are several non-visual opsins found throughout the body tissues, including encephalopsin/panopsin (OPN3), melanopsin (OPN4), and neuropsin (OPN5), as well as other structures that have light-sensitive properties, such as enzymes, ion channels, particularly those located in cell membranes, lysosomes, and neuronal structures such as the nodes of Ranvier. The influence of these structures on exposure to light, including self-generated light within the body (autofluorescence), on circadian oscillators, and circadian and ultradian rhythms have become increasingly reported. The visual and non-visual phototransduction cascade originating from opsins and other structures has potential significant mechanistic effects on tissues and health. Methods: A PubMed and Google Scholar search was made using the search terms "photobiomodulation", "light", "neuron", "opsins", "neuropsin", "melanopsin", "encephalopsin", "rhodopsin", and "chromophore". Results: This review was examined the influence of neuropsin (also known as kallikrein 8), encephalopsin, and melanopsin specifically on ion channel function, and more broadly on the central and peripheral nervous systems. The relationship between opsins 3, 4, and 5 and photobiomodulation mechanisms was evaluated, along with a proposed role of photobiomodulation through opsins and light-sensitive organelles as potential alleviators of symptoms and accelerators of beneficial regenerative processes. The potential clinical implications of this in musculoskeletal conditions, wounds, and in the symptomatic management of neurodegenerative disease was also examined. Conclusions: Systematic research into the pleotropic therapeutic role of photobiomodulation, mediated through its action on opsins and other light-sensitive organelles may assist in the future execution of safe, low-risk precision medicine for a variety of chronic and complex disease conditions, and for health maintenance in aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann Liebert
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,Office of Governance and Research, San Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | | | - Brian Bicknell
- Faculty of Health Science, Australian Catholic University, North Sydney, Australia
| | | | - John Mitrofanis
- Clinatec, Fonds de Dotation-CEA, Universitè Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
| | - Hosen Kiat
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.,Cardiac Health Institute, Sydney, Australia
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6
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Klein PC, Ettinger U, Schirner M, Ritter P, Rujescu D, Falkai P, Koutsouleris N, Kambeitz-Ilankovic L, Kambeitz J. Brain Network Simulations Indicate Effects of Neuregulin-1 Genotype on Excitation-Inhibition Balance in Cortical Dynamics. Cereb Cortex 2021; 31:2013-2025. [PMID: 33279967 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhaa339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) represents an important factor for multiple processes including neurodevelopment, brain functioning or cognitive functions. Evidence from animal research suggests an effect of NRG1 on the excitation-inhibition (E/I) balance in cortical circuits. However, direct evidence for the importance of NRG1 in E/I balance in humans is still lacking. In this work, we demonstrate the application of computational, biophysical network models to advance our understanding of the interaction between cortical activity observed in neuroimaging and the underlying neurobiology. We employed a biophysical neuronal model to simulate large-scale brain dynamics and to investigate the role of polymorphisms in the NRG1 gene (rs35753505, rs3924999) in n = 96 healthy adults. Our results show that G/G-carriers (rs3924999) exhibit a significant difference in global coupling (P = 0.048) and multiple parameters determining E/I-balance such as excitatory synaptic coupling (P = 0.047), local excitatory recurrence (P = 0.032) and inhibitory synaptic coupling (P = 0.028). This indicates that NRG1 may be related to excitatory recurrence or excitatory synaptic coupling potentially resulting in altered E/I-balance. Moreover, we suggest that computational modeling is a suitable tool to investigate specific biological mechanisms in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Costa Klein
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, 50937, Germany
| | - Ulrich Ettinger
- Department of Psychology, University of Bonn, Bonn, 53111, Germany
| | - Michael Schirner
- Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Dept. of Neurology, 10117, Germany.,Bernstein Focus State Dependencies of Learning & Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Berlin 10115, Germany
| | - Petra Ritter
- Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Dept. of Neurology, 10117, Germany.,Bernstein Focus State Dependencies of Learning & Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Berlin 10115, Germany
| | - Dan Rujescu
- University Clinic for Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic, Martin-Luther-University, Halle-Wittenberg, 06112, Germany
| | - Peter Falkai
- Department of Psychiatry, Ludwig Maximilians Universität München, 80336, Germany
| | | | - Lana Kambeitz-Ilankovic
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, 50937, Germany.,Department of Psychiatry, Ludwig Maximilians Universität München, 80336, Germany
| | - Joseph Kambeitz
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, 50937, Germany
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7
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Shi L, Bergson CM. Neuregulin 1: an intriguing therapeutic target for neurodevelopmental disorders. Transl Psychiatry 2020; 10:190. [PMID: 32546684 PMCID: PMC7297728 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-020-00868-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders including schizophrenia (Sz) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are chronic mental illnesses, which place costly and painful burdens on patients, their families and society. In recent years, the epidermal growth factor (EGF) family member Neuregulin 1 (NRG1) and one of its receptors, ErbB4, have received considerable attention due to their regulation of inhibitory local neural circuit mechanisms important for information processing, attention, and cognitive flexibility. Here we examine an emerging body of work indicating that either decreasing NRG1-ErbB4 signaling in fast-spiking parvalbumin positive (PV+) interneurons or increasing it in vasoactive intestinal peptide positive (VIP+) interneurons could reactivate cortical plasticity, potentially making it a future target for gene therapy in adults with neurodevelopmental disorders. We propose preclinical studies to explore this model in prefrontal cortex (PFC), but also review the many challenges in pursuing cell type and brain-region-specific therapeutic approaches for the NRG1 system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Shi
- grid.410427.40000 0001 2284 9329Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Georgia at Augusta University, 1460 Laney Walker Boulevard, Augusta, GA 30912 USA ,grid.189967.80000 0001 0941 6502Present Address: Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA USA
| | - Clare M. Bergson
- grid.410427.40000 0001 2284 9329Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Georgia at Augusta University, 1460 Laney Walker Boulevard, Augusta, GA 30912 USA
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8
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ErbB4 Null Mice Display Altered Mesocorticolimbic and Nigrostriatal Dopamine Levels as well as Deficits in Cognitive and Motivational Behaviors. eNeuro 2020; 7:ENEURO.0395-19.2020. [PMID: 32354758 PMCID: PMC7242816 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0395-19.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Revised: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural genetic variants of Neuregulin1 (NRG1) and its cognate receptor ErbB4 are associated with a risk for schizophrenia. Whereas most studies on NRG1-ErbB4 signaling have focused on GABAergic interneurons, ErbB4 is also expressed by midbrain dopaminergic neurons where it modulates extracellular dopamine (DA) levels. Here, we report that extracellular steady-state levels of DA are reduced in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC; −65%), hippocampus (−53%) and nucleus accumbens (NAc; −35%), but are elevated in the dorsal striatum (+25%) of ErbB4 knock-out mice (ErbB4 KOs) relative to wild-type controls. This pattern of DA imbalance recapitulates the reported prefrontal cortical reduction and striatal increase of DA levels in schizophrenia patients. Next, we report on a battery of behavioral tasks used to evaluate locomotor, cognitive and motivational behaviors in ErbB4 KOs relative to controls. We found that ErbB4 KOs are hyperactive in a novel open field but not in their familiar home cage, are more sensitive to amphetamine, perform poorly in the T-maze and novel object recognition (NOR) tasks, exhibit reduced spatial learning and memory on the Barnes maze, and perform markedly worse in conditioned place preference (CPP) tasks when associating cued-reward palatable food with location. However, we found that the poor performance of ErbB4 KOs in CPP are likely due to deficits in spatial memory, instead of reward seeking, as ErbB4 KOs are more motivated to work for palatable food rewards. Our findings indicate that ErbB4 signaling affects tonic DA levels and modulates a wide array of behavioral deficits relevant to psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia.
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9
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Bukowski L, Chernomorchenko AMF, Starnawska A, Mors O, Staunstrup NH, Børglum AD, Qvist P. Neuropsin in mental health. J Physiol Sci 2020; 70:26. [PMID: 32414324 PMCID: PMC10717651 DOI: 10.1186/s12576-020-00753-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Neuropsin is a brain-expressed extracellular matrix serine protease that governs synaptic plasticity through activity-induced proteolytic cleavage of synaptic proteins. Its substrates comprise several molecules central to structural synaptic plasticity, and studies in rodents have documented its role in cognition and the behavioral and neurobiological response to stress. Intriguingly, differential usage of KLK8 (neuropsin gene) splice forms in the fetal and adult brain has only been reported in humans, suggesting that neuropsin may serve a specialized role in human neurodevelopment. Through systematic interrogation of large-scale genetic data, we review KLK8 regulation in the context of mental health and provide a summary of clinical and preclinical evidence supporting a role for neuropsin in the pathogenesis of mental illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Bukowski
- IPSYCH, The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 10, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Ana M F Chernomorchenko
- IPSYCH, The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 10, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Anna Starnawska
- IPSYCH, The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 10, Aarhus, Denmark
- Center for Genomics and Personalized Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Ole Mors
- IPSYCH, The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, Aarhus, Denmark
- Psychosis Research Unit, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Nicklas H Staunstrup
- IPSYCH, The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, Aarhus, Denmark.
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 10, Aarhus, Denmark.
- Center for Genomics and Personalized Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
| | - Anders D Børglum
- IPSYCH, The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 10, Aarhus, Denmark
- Center for Genomics and Personalized Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Per Qvist
- IPSYCH, The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 10, Aarhus, Denmark
- Center for Genomics and Personalized Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
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10
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Genes dysregulated in the blood of people with Williams syndrome are enriched in protein-coding genes positively selected in humans. Eur J Med Genet 2020; 63:103828. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmg.2019.103828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 11/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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11
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Inhibition of excessive kallikrein-8 improves neuroplasticity in Alzheimer's disease mouse model. Exp Neurol 2020; 324:113115. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2019.113115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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12
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Konar A, Gupta R, Shukla RK, Maloney B, Khanna VK, Wadhwa R, Lahiri DK, Thakur MK. M1 muscarinic receptor is a key target of neuroprotection, neuroregeneration and memory recovery by i-Extract from Withania somnifera. Sci Rep 2019; 9:13990. [PMID: 31570736 PMCID: PMC6769020 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-48238-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Memory loss is one of the most tragic symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. Our laboratory has recently demonstrated that 'i-Extract' of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) restores memory loss in scopolamine (SC)-induced mice. The prime target of i-Extract is obscure. We hypothesize that i-Extract may primarily target muscarinic subtype acetylcholine receptors that regulate memory processes. The present study elucidates key target(s) of i-Extract via cellular, biochemical, and molecular techniques in a relevant amnesia mouse model and primary hippocampal neuronal cultures. Wild type Swiss albino mice were fed i-Extract, and hippocampal cells from naïve mice were treated with i-Extract, followed by muscarinic antagonist (dicyclomine) and agonist (pilocarpine) treatments. We measured dendritic formation and growth by immunocytochemistry, kallikrein 8 (KLK8) mRNA by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and levels of KLK8 and microtubule-associated protein 2, c isoform (MAP2c) proteins by western blotting. We performed muscarinic receptor radioligand binding. i-Extract stimulated an increase in dendrite growth markers, KLK8 and MAP2. Scopolamine-mediated reduction was significantly reversed by i-Extract in mouse cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Our study identified muscarinic receptor as a key target of i-Extract, providing mechanistic evidence for its clinical application in neurodegenerative cognitive disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpita Konar
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India
- CSIR-Institute of Genomics & Integrative Biology, New Delhi, 110025, India
| | - Richa Gupta
- Developmental Toxicology Laboratory, Systems Toxicology and Health Risk Assessment Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Devision of ECD, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, 110029, India
| | - Rajendra K Shukla
- Developmental Toxicology Laboratory, Systems Toxicology and Health Risk Assessment Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Department of Biochemistry, Autonomous State Medical College, Bahraich, Utter Pradesh, 271801, India
| | - Bryan Maloney
- Departments of Psychiatry, Stark Neuroscience Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, 320 West 15th Street, Indianapolis, IN-46202, USA
| | - Vinay K Khanna
- Developmental Toxicology Laboratory, Systems Toxicology and Health Risk Assessment Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Renu Wadhwa
- DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), Biomedical Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST), Central 4, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305 8562, Japan.
| | - Debomoy K Lahiri
- Departments of Psychiatry, Stark Neuroscience Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, 320 West 15th Street, Indianapolis, IN-46202, USA.
- Departments of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana Alzheimer Disesae Center, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN-46202, USA.
| | - Mahendra K Thakur
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India.
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13
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Gazaryan LM, Selyanina NV, Karakulova YV, Sosnin DY. The Level of Neuregulin-1 after Traumatic Brain Injury and Formation of Post-Traumatic Epilepsy. Bull Exp Biol Med 2019; 167:207-209. [PMID: 31236887 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-019-04492-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
We evaluated the serum level of neuregulin-1 in humans with traumatic brain injury. The highest levels of neuregulin-1 were revealed in patients with developing post-traumatic epilepsy and the lowest concentrations of this peptide were found in healthy controls. The patients with traumatic brain injury not aggravated by the development of post-traumatic epilepsy had intermediate levels of neuregulin-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Gazaryan
- E. A. Vagner Perm State Medical University, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Perm, Russia
| | - N V Selyanina
- E. A. Vagner Perm State Medical University, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Perm, Russia
| | - Yu V Karakulova
- E. A. Vagner Perm State Medical University, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Perm, Russia
| | - D Yu Sosnin
- E. A. Vagner Perm State Medical University, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Perm, Russia.
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14
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Nakazawa H, Suzuki Y, Ishikawa Y, Bando Y, Yoshida S, Shiosaka S. Impaired social discrimination behavior despite normal social approach by kallikrein-related peptidase 8 knockout mouse. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2019; 162:47-58. [PMID: 31103466 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2019.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
For social mammals, recognition of conspecifics and discrimination of each other (social memory) is crucial to living in a stable colony. Here, we investigated whether kallikrein-related peptidase 8 (KLK8)-neuregulin 1 (NRG1)-ErbB signaling is crucial for social discrimination behavior using the social discrimination three chamber behavioral test. Klk8 knockout mice (NRG1-deactivated mice) exhibited normal social approach but impaired social discrimination. Intraventricular injection of recombinant NRG1177-246 into Klk8 knockout mice reversed this impaired social discrimination. This study reveals that KLK8 is a key regulator of NRG1-ErbB signaling, which contributes to social discrimination behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitomi Nakazawa
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Neuroscience, Asahikawa Medical University, Asahikawa, Hokkaido 078-8510, Japan.
| | - Yuka Suzuki
- Department of Systems Life Engineering, Maebashi Institute of Technology, Maebashi, Gunma 371-0816, Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Ishikawa
- Department of Systems Life Engineering, Maebashi Institute of Technology, Maebashi, Gunma 371-0816, Japan
| | - Yoshio Bando
- Department of Anatomy, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Akita 010-8543, Japan
| | - Shigetaka Yoshida
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Neuroscience, Asahikawa Medical University, Asahikawa, Hokkaido 078-8510, Japan
| | - Sadao Shiosaka
- Graduate School of Biological Science, Nara Institute of Science and Technology (NAIST), Ikoma, Nara 630-0192, Japan.
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15
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Van De Vijver S, Missault S, Van Soom J, Van Der Veken P, Augustyns K, Joossens J, Dedeurwaerdere S, Giugliano M. The effect of pharmacological inhibition of Serine Proteases on neuronal networks in vitro. PeerJ 2019; 7:e6796. [PMID: 31065460 PMCID: PMC6485206 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.6796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurons are embedded in an extracellular matrix (ECM), which functions both as a scaffold and as a regulator of neuronal function. The ECM is in turn dynamically altered through the action of serine proteases, which break down its constituents. This pathway has been implicated in the regulation of synaptic plasticity and of neuronal intrinsic excitability. In this study, we determined the short-term effects of interfering with proteolytic processes in the ECM, with a newly developed serine protease inhibitor. We monitored the spontaneous electrophysiological activity of in vitro primary rat cortical cultures, using microelectrode arrays. While pharmacological inhibition at a low dosage had no significant effect, at elevated concentrations it altered significantly network synchronization and functional connectivity but left unaltered single-cell electrical properties. These results suggest that serine protease inhibition affects synaptic properties, likely through its actions on the ECM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastiaan Van De Vijver
- Molecular, Cellular, and Network Excitability, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Institute Born-Bunge, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Flanders, Belgium
| | - Stephan Missault
- Experimental Laboratory of Translational Neuroscience and Otolaryngology, Department of Translational Neurosciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Flanders, Belgium
| | - Jeroen Van Soom
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Flanders, Belgium
| | - Pieter Van Der Veken
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Flanders, Belgium
| | - Koen Augustyns
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Flanders, Belgium
| | - Jurgen Joossens
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Flanders, Belgium
| | - Stefanie Dedeurwaerdere
- Laboratory of Experimental Haematology, VAXINFECTIO, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Flanders, Belgium
| | - Michele Giugliano
- Molecular, Cellular, and Network Excitability, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Institute Born-Bunge, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Flanders, Belgium
- Neuroscience sector, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, Trieste, Italy
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16
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Ju J, Liu L, Zhang Y, Zhou Q. Effect of age onset on schizophrenia-like phenotypes and underlying mechanisms in model mice. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2019; 89:465-474. [PMID: 30025793 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Revised: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/15/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
In humans, schizophrenia with onset in adolescence or adult has distinct features. To understand whether schizophrenia with either adolescence- or adult-onset have distinct phenotypes and cellular mechanisms in schizophrenia model mice, we altered Nrg1 signaling during either adolescence or adult mice via injection of anti-Nrg1 antibodies. We found that in either early-onset schizophrenia (EOS)- or late-onset schizophrenia (LOS)-like mice, certain behavior phenotypes are shared including hyperlocomotion, impaired working memory and impaired fear conditioning. Anxiety appears to be largely unaffected. In vitro electrophysiology in brain slices showed altered excitation/inhibition balance in EOS-like mice towards enhanced synaptic excitation, but intrinsic excitability of the fast-spiking GABAergic neurons was elevated in the LOS-like mice. Thus, although schizophrenia-like main phenotypes appear to be preserved in both age onset model mice, there are distinct differences in cellular mechanisms between them. We suggest that these differences are important for more precise diagnosis and more effective treatment of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Ju
- School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, China
| | - Luping Liu
- School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yujie Zhang
- School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, China
| | - Qiang Zhou
- School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, China.
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17
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Murphy E, Benítez-Burraco A. Toward the Language Oscillogenome. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1999. [PMID: 30405489 PMCID: PMC6206218 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Language has been argued to arise, both ontogenetically and phylogenetically, from specific patterns of brain wiring. We argue that it can further be shown that core features of language processing emerge from particular phasal and cross-frequency coupling properties of neural oscillations; what has been referred to as the language ‘oscillome.’ It is expected that basic aspects of the language oscillome result from genetic guidance, what we will here call the language ‘oscillogenome,’ for which we will put forward a list of candidate genes. We have considered genes for altered brain rhythmicity in conditions involving language deficits: autism spectrum disorders, schizophrenia, specific language impairment and dyslexia. These selected genes map on to aspects of brain function, particularly on to neurotransmitter function. We stress that caution should be adopted in the construction of any oscillogenome, given the range of potential roles particular localized frequency bands have in cognition. Our aim is to propose a set of genome-to-language linking hypotheses that, given testing, would grant explanatory power to brain rhythms with respect to language processing and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elliot Murphy
- Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Psychology, University of Westminster, London, United Kingdom
| | - Antonio Benítez-Burraco
- Department of Spanish Language, Linguistics and Literary Theory, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
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18
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Altered hippocampal gene expression and structure in transgenic mice overexpressing neuregulin 1 (Nrg1) type I. Transl Psychiatry 2018; 8:229. [PMID: 30348978 PMCID: PMC6197224 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-018-0288-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Revised: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Transgenic mice overexpressing the type I isoform of neuregulin 1 (Nrg1; NRG1) have alterations in hippocampal gamma oscillations and an age-emergent deficit in hippocampus-dependent spatial working memory. Here, we examined the molecular and morphological correlates of these findings. Microarrays showed over 100 hippocampal transcripts differentially expressed in Nrg1tg-type I mice, with enrichment of genes related to neuromodulation and, in older mice, of genes involved in inflammation and immunity. Nrg1tg-type I mice had an enlarged hippocampus with a widened dentate gyrus. The results show that Nrg1 type I impacts on hippocampal gene expression and structure in a multifaceted and partly age-related way, complementing the evidence implicating Nrg1 signaling in aspects of hippocampal function. The findings are also relevant to the possible role of NRG1 signaling in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia or other disorders affecting this brain region.
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19
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Tamura H, Shiosaka S, Morikawa S. Trophic modulation of gamma oscillations: The key role of processing protease for Neuregulin-1 and BDNF precursors. Neurochem Int 2018; 119:2-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2017.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2017] [Revised: 11/11/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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20
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Missault S, Peeters L, Amhaoul H, Thomae D, Van Eetveldt A, Favier B, Thakur A, Van Soom J, Pitkänen A, Augustyns K, Joossens J, Staelens S, Dedeurwaerdere S. Decreased levels of active uPA and KLK8 assessed by [111In]MICA-401 binding correlate with the seizure burden in an animal model of temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia 2017; 58:1615-1625. [DOI: 10.1111/epi.13845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Missault
- Experimental Laboratory of Translational Neuroscience and Otolaryngology; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; University of Antwerp; Wilrijk Belgium
| | - Lore Peeters
- Experimental Laboratory of Translational Neuroscience and Otolaryngology; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; University of Antwerp; Wilrijk Belgium
- Bio-Imaging Lab; Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences; University of Antwerp; Wilrijk Belgium
| | - Halima Amhaoul
- Experimental Laboratory of Translational Neuroscience and Otolaryngology; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; University of Antwerp; Wilrijk Belgium
| | - David Thomae
- Molecular Imaging Center Antwerp; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; University of Antwerp; Wilrijk Belgium
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry; Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences; University of Antwerp; Wilrijk Belgium
| | - Annemie Van Eetveldt
- Experimental Laboratory of Translational Neuroscience and Otolaryngology; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; University of Antwerp; Wilrijk Belgium
| | - Barbara Favier
- Experimental Laboratory of Translational Neuroscience and Otolaryngology; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; University of Antwerp; Wilrijk Belgium
| | - Anagha Thakur
- Experimental Laboratory of Translational Neuroscience and Otolaryngology; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; University of Antwerp; Wilrijk Belgium
| | - Jeroen Van Soom
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry; Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences; University of Antwerp; Wilrijk Belgium
| | - Asla Pitkänen
- Department of Neurobiology; A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences; University of Eastern Finland; Kuopio Finland
| | - Koen Augustyns
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry; Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences; University of Antwerp; Wilrijk Belgium
| | - Jurgen Joossens
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry; Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences; University of Antwerp; Wilrijk Belgium
| | - Steven Staelens
- Molecular Imaging Center Antwerp; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; University of Antwerp; Wilrijk Belgium
| | - Stefanie Dedeurwaerdere
- Experimental Laboratory of Translational Neuroscience and Otolaryngology; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; University of Antwerp; Wilrijk Belgium
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