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McInnes SJP, Santos A, Kumeria T. Porous Silicon Particles for Cancer Therapy and Bioimaging. NANOONCOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-89878-0_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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2
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Kumeria T, McInnes SJP, Maher S, Santos A. Porous silicon for drug delivery applications and theranostics: recent advances, critical review and perspectives. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2017; 14:1407-1422. [DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2017.1317245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tushar Kumeria
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Steven J. P. McInnes
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, Australia
| | - Shaheer Maher
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Abel Santos
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
- Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing (IPAS), The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics (CNBP), The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
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3
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Chen CL, Zeng J, Bao N, Dai H, Gu HY. Oxygen backed silicon hydride in correlation with the photoluminescence of silicon nano-crystals. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ra02883k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Converting silicon hydride (–SiH) to oxygen backed silicon hydride (–OSiH) on porous silicon leads to a shift in the wavelength of photoluminescence (PL) maximum from 670 to 605 nm, corresponding to an increase of 0.2 eV on emission energy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cui-Li Chen
- College of Chemistry
- Chemical Engineering and Material Science
- Soochow University
- Suzhou
- China
| | - Jiang Zeng
- School of Public Health
- Nantong University
- Nantong
- China
| | - Ning Bao
- School of Public Health
- Nantong University
- Nantong
- China
| | - Hong Dai
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Nantong University
- Nantong 226019
- China
| | - Hai-Ying Gu
- College of Chemistry
- Chemical Engineering and Material Science
- Soochow University
- Suzhou
- China
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4
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McInnes SJP, Lowe RD. Biomedical Uses of Porous Silicon. ELECTROCHEMICALLY ENGINEERED NANOPOROUS MATERIALS 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-20346-1_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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5
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Saleem M, Lee LP, Lee KH. Photoluminescent sensor for acetylcholinesterase inhibitor determination. J Mater Chem B 2014; 2:6802-6808. [DOI: 10.1039/c4tb01239a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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6
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Gupta B, Zhu Y, Guan B, Reece PJ, Gooding JJ. Functionalised porous silicon as a biosensor: emphasis on monitoring cells in vivo and in vitro. Analyst 2013; 138:3593-615. [DOI: 10.1039/c3an00081h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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7
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Optical characteristics and environmental pollutants detection of porous silicon microcavities. Sci China Chem 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s11426-011-4346-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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8
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Lowe RD, Szili EJ, Kirkbride P, Thissen H, Siuzdak G, Voelcker NH. Combined Immunocapture and Laser Desorption/Ionization Mass Spectrometry on Porous Silicon. Anal Chem 2010; 82:4201-8. [DOI: 10.1021/ac100455x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel D. Lowe
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia, Australian Federal Police, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia, CSIRO Molecular and Health Technologies, Clayton, VIC, 3178, Australia, and The Scripps Center for Mass Spectrometry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Endre J. Szili
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia, Australian Federal Police, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia, CSIRO Molecular and Health Technologies, Clayton, VIC, 3178, Australia, and The Scripps Center for Mass Spectrometry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Paul Kirkbride
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia, Australian Federal Police, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia, CSIRO Molecular and Health Technologies, Clayton, VIC, 3178, Australia, and The Scripps Center for Mass Spectrometry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Helmut Thissen
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia, Australian Federal Police, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia, CSIRO Molecular and Health Technologies, Clayton, VIC, 3178, Australia, and The Scripps Center for Mass Spectrometry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Gary Siuzdak
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia, Australian Federal Police, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia, CSIRO Molecular and Health Technologies, Clayton, VIC, 3178, Australia, and The Scripps Center for Mass Spectrometry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Nicolas H. Voelcker
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia, Australian Federal Police, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia, CSIRO Molecular and Health Technologies, Clayton, VIC, 3178, Australia, and The Scripps Center for Mass Spectrometry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037
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9
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Wet Chemical Approaches for Chemical Functionalization of Semiconductor Nanostructures. ELECTROCHEMISTRY AT THE NANOSCALE 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-73582-5_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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10
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Kilian KA, Böcking T, Gooding JJ. The importance of surface chemistry in mesoporous materials: lessons from porous silicon biosensors. Chem Commun (Camb) 2009:630-40. [DOI: 10.1039/b815449j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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11
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Puniredd SR, Assad O, Haick H. Highly Stable Organic Monolayers for Reacting Silicon with Further Functionalities: The Effect of the C−C Bond nearest the Silicon Surface. J Am Chem Soc 2008; 130:13727-34. [DOI: 10.1021/ja804674z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sreenivasa Reddy Puniredd
- The Department of Chemical Engineering and Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
| | - Ossama Assad
- The Department of Chemical Engineering and Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
| | - Hossam Haick
- The Department of Chemical Engineering and Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
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12
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Cattaruzza F, Llanes-Pallas A, Marrani AG, Dalchiele EA, Decker F, Zanoni R, Prato M, Bonifazi D. Redox-active Si(100) surfaces covalently functionalised with [60]fullerene conjugates: new hybrid materials for molecular-based devices. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1039/b717438a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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13
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Perelman LA, Schwartz MP, Wohlrab AM, VanNieuwenhze MS, Sailor MJ. A simplified biomolecule attachment strategy for biosensing using a porous Si oxide interferometer. PHYSICA STATUS SOLIDI (A): APPLIED RESEARCH 2007; 204:1394-1398. [PMID: 18458749 PMCID: PMC2367226 DOI: 10.1002/pssa.200674360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
A simple strategy for linking biomolecules to porous Si surfaces and detecting peptide/drug binding is described. Porous Si is prepared using an electrochemical etch and then thermally oxidized by heating in ambient atmosphere. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) is then non-covalently adsorbed to the inner pore walls of the porous Si oxide (PSiO(2)) matrix. The BSA layer is used as a linker for covalent attachment of the peptide Ac-L-Lysine-D-Alanine-D-Alanine (KAA) using published bioconjugation chemistry. BSA-coated surfaces functionalized with KAA display specificity for the glycopeptide vancomycin while resisting adsorption of non-specific reagents. While the biomolecule attachment strategy reported here is used to bind peptides, the scheme can be generalized to the linking of any primary amine-containing molecule to PSiO(2) surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loren A. Perelman
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Michael P. Schwartz
- Department of Chemisty and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Aaron M. Wohlrab
- Department of Chemisty and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Michael S. VanNieuwenhze
- Department of Chemisty and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Michael J. Sailor
- Department of Chemisty and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
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14
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Schwartz MP, Alvarez SD, Sailor MJ. Porous SiO2 interferometric biosensor for quantitative determination of protein interactions: binding of protein A to immunoglobulins derived from different species. Anal Chem 2007; 79:327-34. [PMID: 17194157 PMCID: PMC2531294 DOI: 10.1021/ac061476p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Determination of kinetic and thermodynamic protein binding constants using interferometry from a porous Si Fabry-Perot layer is presented. A protein A capture probe is adsorbed within the pores of an oxidized porous Si matrix, and binding of immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies derived from different species is investigated. The relative protein A/IgG binding affinity is human > rabbit > goat, in agreement with literature values. The equilibrium binding constant (Ka) for human IgG binding to surface-immobilized protein A is determined to be (3.0 +/- 0.5) x 107 M-1 using an equilibrium Langmuir model. Kinetic rate constants are calculated to be kd = (2.1 +/- 0.2) x 10-4 s-1 and ka = (1.2 +/- 0.4) x 104 M-1 s-1 using nonlinear least-squares analysis, yielding an equilibrium binding constant of Ka = (5.5 +/- 1.5) x 107 M-1. Both steady-state and time-dependent measurements yield equilibrium binding constants that are consistent with literature values. Kinetic rate constants determined through nonlinear least-squares analysis are also in agreement with protein A/IgG binding on a surface. Dosing with a high concentration of analyte leads to deviations from ideal binding behavior, interpreted in terms of restricted analyte diffusion within the porous SiO2 matrix. It is shown that the diffusion limitations can be minimized if the kinetic measurements are performed at low analyte concentrations or under conditions in which the protein A capture probe is not saturated with analyte. Potential limitations of the use of porous SiO2 interferometers for quantitative determination of protein binding constants are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michael J. Sailor
- Corresponding Author, Phone (858) 534-8188, Fax (858) 534-5383, email
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15
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Mengistu TZ, DeSouza L, Morin S. Probing proteins on functionalized silicon surfaces using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2006; 1135:194-202. [PMID: 17054966 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2006.09.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2006] [Revised: 09/13/2006] [Accepted: 09/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Flat H-terminated Si(111) substrates modified with alkyl monolayers terminated with hydrophobic and hydrophilic functional groups were prepared using known surface functionalization methods and characterized by FTIR, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The surfaces were then used for the study of non-specific binding of proteins from complex mixtures (using standard mixture of proteins with average molecular weight approximately 6-66 kDa) by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS). Protein adsorption on these surfaces (following on-probe fractionation of the mixture) was found to be dependent on the nature of surface functional groups, and nature and pH of rinsing solutions used. The results obtained in this work demonstrate that simple silicon-based surface modifications can be effective for direct analysis of complex mixtures by MALDI-MS. Preliminary results obtained using similarly functionalized porous silicon substrates proved that such substrates are (due to their increased surface areas) better performing than flat silicon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadesse Z Mengistu
- Department of Chemistry, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ont. M3J 1P3, Canada
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16
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Pejcic B, De Marco R, Parkinson G. The role of biosensors in the detection of emerging infectious diseases. Analyst 2006; 131:1079-90. [PMID: 17003853 DOI: 10.1039/b603402k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Global biosecurity threats such as the spread of emerging infectious diseases (i.e., avian influenza, SARS, Hendra, Nipah, etc.) and bioterrorism have generated significant interest in recent years. There is considerable effort directed towards understanding and negating the proliferation of infectious diseases. Biosensors are an attractive tool which have the potential to detect the outbreak of a virus and/or disease. Although there is a host of technologies available, either commercially or in the scientific literature, the development of biosensors for the detection of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) is still in its infancy. There is no doubt that the glucose biosensor, the gene chip, the protein chip, etc. have all played and are still playing a significant role in monitoring various biomolecules. Can biosensors play an important role for the detection of emerging infectious diseases? What does the future hold and which biosensor technology platform is suitable for the real-time detection of infectious diseases? These and many other questions will be addressed in this review. The purpose of this review is to present an overview of biosensors particularly in relation to EIDs. It provides a synopsis of the various types of biosensor technologies that have been used to detect EIDs, and describes some of the technologies behind them in terms of transduction and bioreceptor principles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bobby Pejcic
- Nanochemistry Research Institute, Department of Applied Chemistry, Curtin University of Technology, GPO Box U 1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia
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17
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Stefano LD, Rotiroti L, Rea I, Moretti L, Francia GD, Massera E, Lamberti A, Arcari P, Sanges C, Rendina I. Porous silicon-based optical biochips. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1088/1464-4258/8/7/s37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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18
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De Stefano L, Rotiroti L, Rendina I, Moretti L, Scognamiglio V, Rossi M, D'Auria S. Porous silicon-based optical microsensor for the detection of l-glutamine. Biosens Bioelectron 2006; 21:1664-7. [PMID: 16207529 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2005.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2005] [Revised: 07/11/2005] [Accepted: 08/02/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The molecular binding between the glutamine-binding protein (GlnBP) from Escherichia coli and L-glutamine (Gln) is optically transduced by means of a biosensor based on porous silicon nano-technology. The sensor operates by the measurement of the interferometric fringes in the reflectivity spectrum of a porous silicon Fabry-Perot layer. The binding event is revealed as a shift in wavelength of the fringes. Due to the hydrophobic interaction with the Si-H terminated surface of the porous silicon, the GlnBP protein, which acts as a molecular probe for Gln, penetrates and links into the pores of the porous silicon matrix. We can thus avoid any preliminary functionalization process of the porous layer surface, which is also prevented from oxidation, at least for few cycles of wet measurements. The binding of Gln to GlnBP has also been investigated at different concentration of GlnBP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca De Stefano
- Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems, Department of Naples, National Council of Research, Italy.
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Xia B, Xiao SJ, Guo DJ, Wang J, Chao J, Liu HB, Pei J, Chen YQ, Tang YC, Liu JN. Biofunctionalisation of porous silicon (PS) surfaces by using homobifunctional cross-linkers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1039/b511175g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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20
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Létant SE, Kane SR, Hart BR, Hadi MZ, Cheng TC, Rastogi VK, Reynolds JG. Hydrolysis of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors--organophosphorus acid anhydrolase enzyme immobilization on photoluminescent porous silicon platforms. Chem Commun (Camb) 2004:851-3. [PMID: 15700058 DOI: 10.1039/b412215a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We report on the immobilization of an OPAA enzyme on luminescent porous silicon devices, and on the utilization of this new platform to hydrolyze p-nitrophenyl-soman.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia E Létant
- University of California, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA 94551, USA
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Shirahata N, Seo WS, Kinoshita T, Yonezawa T, Hozumi A, Yokogawa Y, Kameyama T, Masuda Y, Koumoto K. Interfacial observation of an alkylsilane self-assembled monolayer on hydrogen-terminated Si. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2004; 20:8942-8946. [PMID: 15379531 DOI: 10.1021/la036362c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Naoto Shirahata
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, 464-8603, Japan.
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Midwood KS, Carolus MD, Danahy MP, Schwarzbauer JE, Schwartz J. Easy and efficient bonding of biomolecules to an oxide surface of silicon. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2004; 20:5501-5. [PMID: 15986692 DOI: 10.1021/la049506b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
A new method is described to attach biological molecules to the surface of silicon. Semiconductors such as Si modified with surface-bound capture molecules have enormous potential for use in biosensors for which an ideal detection platform should be inexpensive, recognize targets rapidly with high sensitivity and specificity, and possess superior stability. In this process, a self-assembled film of an organophosphonic acid is bonded to the native or synthesized oxide-coated Si surface as a film of the correspondingphosphonate. The phosphonate film is functionalized to enable covalently coupling biological molecules, ranging in size from small peptides to large multi-subunit proteins, to the Si surface. Surface modification and biomolecule coupling procedures are easily accomplished: all reactions can proceed in air, and most take place under ambient conditions. The biomolecule-modified surfaces are stable under physiological conditions, are selective for adhesion of specific cells types, and are reusable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim S Midwood
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544-1014, USA
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Létant SE, Hart BR, Van Buuren AW, Terminello LJ. Functionalized silicon membranes for selective bio-organism capture. NATURE MATERIALS 2003; 2:391-395. [PMID: 12717430 DOI: 10.1038/nmat888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2002] [Accepted: 03/27/2003] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Membranes with various pore size, length, morphology and density have been synthesized from diverse materials for size-exclusion-based separation. An example is the sterilization of intravenous lines by exclusion of bacteria and viruses using polyvinylidene fluoride membranes with 0.1-microm-diameter pores. Chemically specific filtration has recently been addressed for small molecules. Nevertheless, specific bio-organism immobilization and detection remains a great technical challenge in many biomedical applications, such as decontamination or analysis of air and liquids such as drinking water and body fluids. To achieve this goal, materials with controlled pore diameter, length and surface chemistry are required. In this letter, we present the first functionalized silicon membranes and demonstrate their ability to selectively capture simulated bio-organisms. These extremely versatile and rigid devices open the door to a new class of materials that are able to recognize the external fingerprints of bio-organisms-such as size and outer membrane proteins-for specific capture and detection applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia E Létant
- Chemistry and Materials Science Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, USA.
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