Development of in-situ electrochemical heavy metal ion sensor using integrated 1D/0D/1D hybrid by MWCNT and CQDs supported MnO2 nanomaterial

An integrated 1D/0D/1D hybrid nanomaterial was prepared from MWCNT supported carbon quantum dots @ MnO₂ nanomaterial for a sensitive and selective electrochemical heavy metal ion sensor by hydrothermal methods. The developed nanomaterials were characterized by various analytical methods such as FESEM, HRTEM, XRD, FTIR, EDX and elemental mapping study, and also its electrochemical properties of the prepared samples were investigated by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) analysis. Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) analysis has been used to investigate the quantitative detection of heavy metal ions such as cadmium and chromium on modified electrodes under optimal conditions. The in-situ electrochemical sensitivity and selectivity of the samples were determined by varying various parameters, such as the concentration of heavy metal ions, different electrolytes and electrolyte pH. The observed DPV results show that prepared MWCNT (0.05 wt%) and CQD (0.1 wt%) supported MnO₂ nanoparticles show effective detection response for chromium (IV) metal ion. In particular, 0D CQD, 1D MWCNT, and MnO₂ hybrid nanostructures produced a synergistic effect among them, resulting in strong electrochemical performance of the prepared samples against the target metal ions.

Breaking the Electronic Conductivity Bottleneck of Manganese Oxide Family for High-Power Fluorinated Graphite Composite Cathode by Ligand-Field High-Dimensional Constraining Strategy

Primary lithium fluorinated graphite (Li/CF_x ) batteries with superior energy density are an indispensable energy supply for multiple fields but suffer from sluggish reaction kinetics of the CF_x cathode. Designing composite cathodes emerges as a solution to this problem. Despite the optimal composite component for CF_x , the manganese oxide family represented by MnO₂ is still faced with an intrinsic electronic conductivity bottleneck, which severely limits the power density of the composite cathode. Here, a cation-induced high-dimensional constraining strategy from the perspective of ligand-field stacking structure topological design, which breaks the molecular orbital hybridization of pristine semiconductive oxides to transform them into the high-conductivity metallic state while competitively maintaining structural stability, is proposed. Through first-principles phase diagram calculations, mixed-valent Mn₅ O₈ ( Mn 2 2 + Mn 3 4 + O 8 ${\rm{Mn}}_2^{2 + }{\rm{Mn}}_3^{4 + }{{\rm{O}}_8}$ ) is explored as an ideal high-dimensional constraining material with satisfied conductivity and large-scale production feasibility. Experiments demonstrate that the as-proposed CF_x  @ Mn₅ O₈ composite cathode achieves 2.36 times the power density (11399 W kg^-1 ) of pristine CF_x and a higher CF_x conversion ratio (86%). Such a high-dimensional field-constraining strategy is rooted in the established four-quadrant electronic structure tuning framework, which fundamentally changes the orbital symmetry under the ligand field to overcome the common conductivity challenge of wide transition metal oxide materials.

A DFT prediction of two-dimensional MB3 (M = V, Nb, and Ta) monolayers as excellent anode materials for lithium-ion batteries

Transition metal borides (MBenes) have recently drawn great attention due to their excellent electrochemical performance as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Using the structural search code and first-principles calculations, we identify a group of the MB3 monolayers (M = V, Nb and Ta) consisting of multiple MB4 units interpenetrating with each other. The MB3 monolayers with non-chemically active surfaces are stable and have metal-like conduction. As the anode materials for Li-ion storage, the low diffusion barrier, high theoretical capacity, and suitable average open circuit voltage indicate that the MB3 monolayers have excellent electrochemical performance, due to the B3 chain exposed on the surface improving the Li atoms' direct adsorption. In addition, the adsorbed Li-ions are in an ordered hierarchical arrangement and the substrate structure remains intact at room temperature, which ensures excellent cycling performance. This work provides a novel idea for designing high-performance anode materials for LIBs.

Density-Based Descriptors of Redox Reactions Involving Transition Metal Compounds as a Reality-Anchored Framework: A Perspective

Description of redox reactions is critically important for understanding and rational design of materials for electrochemical technologies, including metal-ion batteries, catalytic surfaces, or redox-flow cells. Most of these technologies utilize redox-active transition metal compounds due to their rich chemistry and their beneficial physical and chemical properties for these types of applications. A century since its introduction, the concept of formal oxidation states (FOS) is still widely used for rationalization of the mechanisms of redox reactions, but there exists a well-documented discrepancy between FOS and the electron density-derived charge states of transition metal ions in their bulk and molecular compounds. We summarize our findings and those of others which suggest that density-driven descriptors are, in certain cases, better suited to characterize the mechanism of redox reactions, especially when anion redox is involved, which is the blind spot of the FOS ansatz.

From absolute potentials to a generalized computational standard hydrogen electrode for aqueous and non-aqueous solvents

We describe a simple and efficient procedure to compute a conversion factor for the absolute potential of the standard hydrogen electrode in water to any other solvent. In contrast to earlier methods our procedure only requires the pKa of an arbitrary acid in water and few simple quantum chemical calculations as input. Thus, it is not affected adversely by experimental shortcomings related to measurements in non-aqueous solvents. By combining this conversion factor with the absolute potential in water, the absolute potential in the solvent of interest is obtained. Based on this procedure a new generalized computational standard hydrogen electrode for the computation of electron transfer and proton-coupled electron transfer potentials in non-aqueous solvents and ionic liquids is developed. This enables for the first time the reliable prediction of redox potentials in any solvent. The method is tested through calculation of absolute potentials in 36 solvents. Using the Kamlet-Taft linear solvation energy model we find that the relative absolute potentials consistently increase with decreasing polarisability and decreasing hydrogen bonding ability. For protic solvents good agreement with literature is observed while significant deviations are found for aprotic solvents. The obtained conversion factors are independent of the quantum chemical method, while minor differences are observed between solvation models. This does, however, not affect the global trends.

Method for the accurate prediction of electron transfer potentials using an effective absolute potential

A protocol for the accurate computation of electron transfer (ET) potentials from ab initio and density functional theory (DFT) calculations is described. The method relies on experimental pKa values, which can be measured accurately, to compute a computational setup dependent effective absolute potential. The effective absolute potentials calculated using this protocol display strong variations between the different computational setups and deviate in several cases significantly from the "generally accepted" value of 4.28 V. The most accurate estimate, obtained from CCSD(T)/aug-ccpvqz, indicates an absolute potential of 4.14 V for the normal hydrogen electrode (nhe) in water. Using the effective absolute potential in combination with CCSD(T) and a moderately sized basis, we are able to predict ET potentials accurately for a test set of small organic molecules (σ = 0.13 V). Similarly we find the effective absolute potential method to perform equally good or better for all considered DFT functionals compared to using one of the literature values for the absolute potential. For, M06-2X, which comprises the most accurate DFT method, standard deviation of 0.18 V is obtained. This improved performance is a result of using the most appropriate effective absolute potential for a given method.

Dual redox mediators accelerate the electrochemical kinetics of lithium-sulfur batteries

The sluggish electrochemical kinetics of sulfur species has impeded the wide adoption of lithium-sulfur battery, which is one of the most promising candidates for next-generation energy storage system. Here, we present the electronic and geometric structures of all possible sulfur species and construct an electronic energy diagram to unveil their reaction pathways in batteries, as well as the molecular origin of their sluggish kinetics. By decoupling the contradictory requirements of accelerating charging and discharging processes, we select two pseudocapacitive oxides as electron-ion source and drain to enable the efficient transport of electron/Li⁺ to and from sulfur intermediates respectively. After incorporating dual oxides, the electrochemical kinetics of sulfur cathode is significantly accelerated. This strategy, which couples a fast-electrochemical reaction with a spontaneous chemical reaction to bypass a slow-electrochemical reaction pathway, offers a solution to accelerate an electrochemical reaction, providing new perspectives for the development of high-energy battery systems.

The sluggish electrochemical kinetics of sulfur species remains a major hurdle for the broad adoption of lithium-sulfur batteries. Here, the authors construct an energy diagram of sulfur species to unveil their reaction pathways and propose a general strategy to accelerate electrochemical reactions.

Ab initio study of Li, Mg and Al insertion into rutile VO2: fast diffusion and enhanced voltages for multivalent batteries

Vanadium oxides are among the most promising materials that can be used as electrodes in rechargeable metal-ion batteries. In this work, we systematically investigate thermodynamic, electronic, and kinetic properties associated with the insertion of Li, Mg and Al atoms into rutile VO₂. Using first-principles calculations, we systematically study the structural evolution and voltage curves of Li_xVO₂, Mg_xVO₂ and Al_xVO₂ (0 < x < 1) compounds. The calculated lithium intercalation voltage starts at 3.50 V for single-atom insertion and decreases to 2.23 V for full lithiation, to the LiVO₂ compound, which agrees well with the experimental results. The Mg insertion features a plateau about 1.6 V up to Mg_0.5VO₂ and then another plateau-like region at around 0.5 V up to Mg₁VO₂. The predicted voltage curve for Al insertion starts at 1.98 V, followed by two plateaus at 1.48 V and 1.17 V. The diffusion barrier of Li, Mg and Al in the tunnel structure of VO₂ is 0.06, 0.33 and 0.50 eV, respectively. The demonstrated excellent Li, Mg and Al mobility, high structural stability and high specific capacity suggest promising potential of rutile VO₂ electrodes especially for multivalent batteries.

Structural and Electronic Properties of Transition-Metal Oxides Attached to a Single-Walled CNT as a Lithium-Ion Battery Electrode: A First-Principles Study

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and metal oxides (MOs), such as manganese(IV) oxide (MnO₂), cobalt(II, III) oxide (Co₃O₄), and nickel(II) oxide (NiO) hybrid structures, have received great attention because of their promising application in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). As electrode materials for LIBs, the structure of SWCNT/MOs provides high power density, good electrical conductivity, and excellent cyclic stability. In this work, first-principles calculations were used to investigate the structural and electronic properties of MOs attached to (5, 5) SWCNT and Li-ion adsorption to SWCNT/metal oxide composites as electrode materials in LIBs. Emphasis was placed on the synergistic effects of the composite on the electrochemical performance of LIBs in terms of adsorption capabilities and charge transfer of Li-ions attached to (5, 5) SWCNT and metal oxides. Also, Li adsorption energy on SWCNTs and three different metal oxides (NiO, MnO₂, and Co₃O₄) and the accompanying changes in the electronic properties, such as band structure, density of states and charge distribution as a function of Li adsorption were calculated. On the basis of the calculation results, the top C atom was found to be the most stable position for the NiO and MnO₂ attachment to SWCNT, while the Co₃O₄ molecule, the Co²⁺, was found to be the most stable attachment on SWCNT. The obtained results show that the addition of MOs to the SWCNT electrode enables an increase in specific surface area and improves the electronic conductivity and charge transfer of an LIB.

Comparison of Li, Na, Mg and Al-ion insertion in vanadium pentoxides and vanadium dioxides

We investigate and compare main vanadium oxide phases for Li, Na, Mg and Al-ion batteries.

First-principles investigation of a β-MnO2 and graphene composite as a promising cathode material for rechargeable Li-ion batteries

In this investigation, we studied the effect of the synergistic mechanism on the stability and the electronic and Li diffusion performance of a β-MnO₂ and graphene composite.

Understanding structural stability of monoclinic LiMnO2 and NaMnO2 upon de-intercalation

Although many strategies for Li-ion batteries have been successfully transplanted in Na-ion batteries, distinctions between these two kinds of secondary batteries are still clear. For example, monoclinic-NaMnO2 demonstrates high structural stability during charging and discharging, but its iso-structured LiMnO2 transforms to a spinel upon de-lithiation and the specific capacity fades quickly with cycling. In this work, first-principles calculations were carried out to have a better understanding of their difference in structural stability upon de-intercalation. Our studies show that the Mn-ions migrate into the Li layer of LiMnO2via an interstitial tetrahedral O atom when a triple-vacancy of the Li-ion is produced. This process follows a double-vacancy mechanism and results in blocking of the diffusion of other Li-ions. In contrast, it is very difficult for the Mn-ions to migrate into the Na layer in NaMnO2 even when triple-vacancies are generated. The drastic differences between LiMnO2 and NaMnO2 in charge distribution and in the length of the Mn-O bond are believed to be responsible for the Mn-ion migration in them. These findings provide revelations for understanding the de-intercalation behaviors of electrode materials for Li- and Na-ion batteries as well as insights into the structural stability of LiMnO2vs. NaMnO2 upon alkali metal ion de-intercalation.

Two-dimensional transition-metal oxide monolayers as cathode materials for Li and Na ion batteries

Two-dimensional monolayers are attractive for applications in metal-ion batteries because of their low ion-diffusion barrier and volume expansion.

Li Intercalation into a β-MnO2 Grain Boundary

MnO2 is well-known for its technological applications including Li ion, Li-air batteries, and electrochemical capacitors. Compared to the bulk material, nanostructuring of rutile (β-)MnO2 has been shown to vastly improve its electrochemical properties and performance. While the bulk material cannot readily intercalate Li, nanostructured mesoporous samples exhibit good Li intercalation. This observation is not yet fully understood. In this work, we use state-of-the-art theoretical techniques to investigate Li intercalation and migration at the β-MnO2 Σ 5(210)/[001] grain boundary (GB). We show how large tunnel structures in the GB can promote Li intercalation with voltages of up to 3.83 eV compared to the experimental value of 3.00 eV. Conversely, small tunnel structures resulting from overcoordination of ions at the GB can hinder Li intercalation with significantly reduced voltages. The size and shape of these tunnels also strongly influence the energetics of Li migration with energy barriers ranging from 0.15 to 0.89 eV, compared to a value for the bulk of 0.17 eV. Our results illustrate how GBs with large, open tunnel structures may promote electrochemical performance and could be a contributing factor to the excellent performance of nanostructured β-MnO2.

First-principles calculations of oxygen vacancy formation and metallic behavior at a β-MnO2 grain boundary

Nanostructured MnO2 is renowned for its excellent energy storage capability and high catalytic activity. While the electronic and structural properties of MnO2 surfaces have received significant attention, the properties of the grain boundaries (GBs) and their contribution to the electrochemical performance of the material remains unknown. Through density functional theory (DFT) calculations, the structure and electronic properties of the β-MnO2 Σ 5(210)/[001] GB are studied. Our calculations show this low energy GB has a significantly reduced band gap compared to the pristine material and that the formation of oxygen vacancies produces spin-polarized states that further reduce the band gap. Calculated formation energies of oxygen vacancy defects and Mn reduction at the GB core are all lower than the equivalent bulk value and in some cases lower than values recently calculated for β-MnO2 surfaces. Oxygen vacancy formation is also shown to produce a metallic behavior at the GB with defect charge distributed over a number of oxygen and manganese sites. The low energies of oxygen defect formation and the potential creation of conductive GB pathways are likely to be important to the electrochemical performance of β-MnO2.

An ab initio study of TiS3: a promising electrode material for rechargeable Li and Na ion batteries

First-principles calculations have been used to study the electronic properties of bulk and monolayer TiS₃ and its characteristics as an electrode material in rechargeable Li and Na ion batteries.

Adaptive cluster expansion approach for predicting the structure evolution of graphene oxide

An adaptive cluster expansion (CE) method is used to explore surface adsorption and growth processes. Unlike the traditional CE method, suitable effective cluster interaction (ECI) parameters are determined, and then the selected fixed number of ECIs is continually optimized to predict the stable configurations with gradual increase of adatom coverage. Comparing with traditional CE method, the efficiency of the adaptive CE method could be greatly enhanced. As an application, the adsorption and growth of oxygen atoms on one side of pristine graphene was carefully investigated using this method in combination with first-principles calculations. The calculated results successfully uncover the structural evolution of graphene oxide for the different numbers of oxygen adatoms on graphene. The aggregation behavior of the stable configurations for different oxygen adatom coverages is revealed for increasing coverages of oxygen atoms. As a targeted method, adaptive CE can also be applied to understand the evolution of other surface adsorption and growth processes.

Oxygen vacancy formation and reduction properties of β-MnO2 grain boundaries and the potential for high electrochemical performance

In recent years, the nanostructuring of rutile (β-)MnO2 has been shown to vastly improve its properties and performance in a number of technological applications. The contrast between the strong electrochemical properties of the nanostructured material and the bulk material that shows limited Li intercalation and electrochemical capacitance is not yet fully understood. In this work, we investigate the structure, stability and catalytic properties of four tilt grain boundaries in β-MnO2 using interatomic potential methods. By considering the γ-surfaces of each of the grain boundaries, we are able to find the lowest energy configurations for each grain boundary structure. For each grain boundary, we observe a significant decrease in the oxygen vacancy energies in and around the grain boundaries compared to bulk β-MnO2 and also the bulk-like structures in the grain boundary cells. The reduction of Mn(4+) to Mn(3+) is also considered and again is shown to be preferable at the boundaries. These energies suggest a potentially higher catalytic activity at the grain boundaries of β-MnO2. The results are also placed into context with recent calculations of β-MnO2 surfaces to produce a more detailed understanding into this important phenomenon.

Facile synthesis of the Li-rich layered oxide Li1.23Ni0.09Co0.12Mn0.56O2 with superior lithium storage performance and new insights into structural transformation of the layered oxide material during charge-discharge cycle: in situ XRD characterization

In this work, the Li-rich oxide Li1.23Ni0.09Co0.12Mn0.56O2 was synthesized through a facile route called aqueous solution-evaporation route that is simple and without waste water. The as-prepared Li1.23Ni0.09Co0.12Mn0.56O2 oxide was confirmed to be a layered LiMO2-Li2MnO3 solid solution through ex situ X-ray diffraction (ex situ XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Electrochemical results showed that the Li-rich oxide Li1.23Ni0.09Co0.12Mn0.56O2 material can deliver a discharge capacity of 250.8 mAhg(-1) in the 1st cycle at 0.1 C and capacity retention of 86.0% in 81 cycles. In situ X-ray diffraction technique (in situ XRD) and ex situ TEM were applied to study structural changes of the Li-rich oxide Li1.23Ni0.09Co0.12Mn0.56O2 material during charge-discharge cycles. The study allowed observing experimentally, for the first time, the existence of β-MnO2 phase that is appeared near 4.54 V in the first charge process, and a phase transformation of the β-MnO2 to layered Li0.9MnO2 is occurred in the initial discharge process by evidence of in situ XRD pattrens and selected area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns at different states of the initial charge and discharge process. The results illustrated also that the variation of the in situ X-ray reflections during charge-discharge cycling are clearly related to the changes of lattice parameters of the as-prepared Li-rich oxide during the charge-discharge cycles.

Electrochemistry and structure of the cobalt-free Li1+xMO2(M = Li, Ni, Mn, Fe) composite cathode

Understanding the electrochemical mechanism of the cobalt-free (Li_0.80(4)Ni_0.20(4))(Li_0.20(4)Ni_0.13(4)Mn_0.33Fe_0.33)O₂cathode usingoperandoneutron powder-diffraction.