CO2-activated, hierarchical trimodal porous graphene frameworks for ultrahigh and ultrafast capacitive behavior

Graphene Oxide Synthesis, Properties and Characterization Techniques: A Comprehensive Review

The unique properties of graphene oxide (GO) have attracted the attention of the research community and cost-effective routes for its production are studied. The type and percentage of the oxygen groups that decorate a GO sheet are dependent on the synthesis path, and this path specifies the carbon content of the sheet. The chemical reduction of GO results in reduced graphene oxide (rGO) while the removal of the oxygen groups is also achievable with thermal processes (tpGO). This review article introduces the reader to the carbon allotropes, provides information about graphene which is the backbone of GO and focuses on GO synthesis and properties. The last part covers some characterization techniques of GO (XRD, FTIR, AFM, SEM-EDS, N2 porosimetry and UV-Vis) with a view to the fundamental principles of each technique. Some critical aspects arise for GO synthesized and characterized from our group.

Progress in modifications of 3D graphene-based adsorbents for environmental applications

3D graphene-based materials are promising adsorbents for environmental applications. Furthermore, increasing attention has been paid to the improvement of 3D graphene adsorbents for removing pollutants. In this article, the progress in the modification of 3D graphene materials and their performance for removing pollutants were reviewed. The modification strategies, which were classified as (1) the activation with CO₂ (steam and other oxidants) and (2) the surface functionalization with polymers (metals, and metal oxides), were evaluated. The performances of modified 3D graphene materials were assessed for the removal of waste gases (such as CO₂), refractory organics, and heavy metals. The challenges and future research directions were discussed for the environmental applications of 3D graphene materials.

3D Graphene Materials: From Understanding to Design and Synthesis Control

Carbon materials, with their diverse allotropes, have played significant roles in our daily life and the development of material science. Following 0D C₆₀ and 1D carbon nanotube, 2D graphene materials, with their distinctively fascinating properties, have been receiving tremendous attention since 2004. To fulfill the efficient utilization of 2D graphene sheets in applications such as energy storage and conversion, electrochemical catalysis, and environmental remediation, 3D structures constructed by graphene sheets have been attempted over the past decade, giving birth to a new generation of graphene materials called 3D graphene materials. This review starts with the definition, classifications, brief history, and basic synthesis chemistries of 3D graphene materials. Then a critical discussion on the design considerations of 3D graphene materials for diverse applications is provided. Subsequently, after emphasizing the importance of normalized property characterization for the 3D structures, approaches for 3D graphene material synthesis from three major types of carbon sources (GO, hydrocarbons and inorganic carbon compounds) based on GO chemistry, hydrocarbon chemistry, and new alkali-metal chemistry, respectively, are comprehensively reviewed with a focus on their synthesis mechanisms, controllable aspects, and scalability. At last, current challenges and future perspectives for the development of 3D graphene materials are addressed.

In-situ synthesis of 3D GA on titanium wire as a binder- free electrode for electro-Fenton removing of EDTA-Ni

Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) could form stable complexes with toxic metals such as nickel due to its strong chelation. The three-dimensional (3D) macroporous graphene aerogels (GA), which was in-situ assembled by reduced graphene oxide (rGO) sheets on titanium wire as binder-free electrode, was presented as cathode for the degradation of EDTA-Ni in Electro-Fenton process. The X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) results indicated 3D GA formed three dimensional architecture with large and homogenous macropore structure and surface area. Cyclic Voltammetry (CV), Linear Sweep Voltammetry (LSV) and Rotating Ring-disk Electrode (RRDE) results showed that the 3D GA cathode at pH 3 displayed the highest current density and electrochemical active surface area (ECSA), and better two-electron selectivity for ORR than other pH value, confirming the 3D-GA cathode at pH 3 has the highest electrocatalytic activity and generates more H₂O₂. The factors such as pH, applied current density, concentration of Fe²⁺, Na₂SO_4, and aeration rates of air were also investigated. Under the optimum conditions, 73.5% of EDTA-Ni was degraded after reaction for 2h. Mechanism analysis indicated that the production of OH on the 3D GA cathode played an important role in the removal of EDTA-Ni in the 3D GA-EF process, where the direct regeneration of Fe²⁺ on the cathode would greatly reduce the consumption of H₂O₂. Therefore, it is of great promise for 3D-GA catalyst to be developed as highly efficient, cost-effective and durable cathode for the removal of EDTA-Ni.

Design of 3D Graphene-Oxide Spheres and Their Derived Hierarchical Porous Structures for High Performance Supercapacitors

Graphene-oxide (GO) based porous structures are highly desirable for supercapacitors, as the charge storage and transfer can be enhanced by advancement in the synthesis. An effective route is presented of, first, synthesis of three-dimensional (3D) assembly of GO sheets in a spherical architecture (GOS) by flash-freezing of GO dispersion, and then development of hierarchical porous graphene (HPG) networks by facile thermal-shock reduction of GOS. This leads to a superior gravimetric specific capacitance of ≈306 F g^-1 at 1.0 A g^-1 , with a capacitance retention of 93% after 10 000 cycles. The values represent a significant capacitance enhancement by 30-50% compared with the GO powder equivalent, and are among the highest reported for GO-based structures from different chemical reduction routes. Furthermore, a solid-state flexible supercapacitor is fabricated by constructing the HPG with polymer gel electrolyte, exhibiting an excellent areal specific capacitance of ≈220 mF cm^-2 at 1.0 mA cm^-2 with exceptional cyclic stability. The work reveals a facile but efficient synthesis approach of GO-based materials to enhance the capacitive energy storage.

Cartilage-inspired superelastic ultradurable graphene aerogels prepared by the selective gluing of intersheet joints

In this study, we demonstrate a cartilage-inspired superelastic and ultradurable nanocomposite strategy for the selective inclusion of viscoelastic poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) into graphene sheet junctions to create effective stress-transfer pathways within three-dimensional (3D) graphene aerogels (GAs). Inspired by the joint architectures in the human body, where small amounts of soft cartilage connect stiff (or hard) but hollow (and thus lightweight) bones, the 3D internetworked GA@PDMS achieves synergistic toughening. The resulting GA@PDMS nanocomposites exhibit fully reversible structural deformations (99.8% recovery even at a 90% compressive strain) and high compressive mechanical strength (448.2 kPa at a compressive strain of 90%) at repeated compression cycles. Owing to the combination of excellent mechanical and electrical properties, the GA@PDMS nanocomposites are used as signal transducers for strain sensors, showing very short response and recovery times (in the millisecond range) with reliable sensitivity and extreme durability. Furthermore, the proposed system is applied to electronic scales with a large detectable weight of about 4600 times greater than its own weight. Such bio-inspired cartilage architecture opens the door to fabricate new 3D multifunctional and mechanically durable nanocomposites for emerging applications, which include sensors, actuators, and flexible devices.

Graphene and its electrochemistry - an update

The electrochemistry of graphene and its derivatives has been extensively researched in recent years. In the aspect of graphene preparation methods, the efficiencies of the top-down electrochemical exfoliation of graphite, the electrochemical reduction of graphene oxide and the electrochemical delamination of CVD grown graphene, are currently on par with conventional procedures. Electrochemical analysis of graphene oxide has revealed an unexpected inherent redox activity with, in some cases, an astonishing chemical reversibility. Furthermore, graphene modified with p-block elements has shown impressive electrocatalytic performances in processes which have been historically dominated by metal-based catalysts. Further progress has also been achieved in the practical usage of graphene in sensing and biosensing applications. This review is an update of our previous article in Chem. Soc. Rev. 2010, 39, 4146-4157, with special focus on the developments over the past two years.

Phase-Controlled Iron Oxide Nanobox Deposited on Hierarchically Structured Graphene Networks for Lithium Ion Storage and Photocatalysis

The phase control, hierarchical architecturing and hybridization of iron oxide is important for achieving multifunctional capability for many practical applications. Herein, hierarchically structured reduced graphene oxide (hrGO)/α-Fe2O3 and γ-Fe3O4 nanobox hybrids (hrGO/α-Fe and hrGO/γ-Fe NBhs) are synthesized via a one-pot, hydrothermal process and their functionality controlled by the crystalline phases is adapted for energy storage and photocatalysis. The three-dimensionally (3D) macroporous structure of hrGO/α-Fe NBhs is constructed, while α-Fe2O3 nanoboxes (NBs) in a proximate contact with the hrGO surface are simultaneously grown during a hydrothermal treatment. The discrete α-Fe2O3 NBs are uniformly distributed on the surface of the hrGO/α-Fe and confined in the 3D architecture, thereby inhibiting the restacking of rGO. After the subsequent phase transition into γ-Fe3O4, the hierarchical structure and the uniform distribution of NBs are preserved. Despite lower initial capacity, the hrGO/α-Fe NBhs show better rate and cyclic performances than those of commercial rGO/α-Fe due to the uniform distribution of discrete α-Fe2O3 NBs and electronic conductivity, macroporosity, and buffering effect of the hrGO for lithium ion battery anodes. Moreover, the catalytic activity and kinetics of hrGO/γ-Fe NBhs are enhanced for photo-Fenton reaction because of the uniform distribution of discrete γ-Fe3O4 NBs on the 3D hierarchical architecture.

Freestanding polyaniline nanorods grown on graphene for highly capacitive energy storage

Freestanding polyaniline (PANI) nanorods grown in situ on microwave-expanded graphene oxide (MEGO) sheets were prepared through a facile solution method. The morphological characterization indicates that large quantity of free-standing PANI nanorods with average diameter of 50 nm were uniformly deposited onto the double sides of the MEGO nanosheets to form a sandwich structure. The hybrid of PANI/MEGO (GPANI) exhibit high specific surface area and high electrical conductivity, compared with pristine PANI nanorods. When evaluated as electrodes for supercapacitors, the GPANI demonstrate high specific capacitance of 628 F g(-1) at a current density of 1.1 A g(-1), high-rate performance, and excellent cycle stability compared to individual component. Such excellent electrochemical performance should be attributed to the combined double-layer capacitance and pseudo -capacitance mechanisms from the MEGO sheets and PANI nanorods.

Chemical modification of graphene aerogels for electrochemical capacitor applications

The demand for graphene aerogel-based ECs with enhanced capacitance and mechanical properties has led to the development of diverse synthetic techniques.

Strategy and mechanism for controlling the direction of defect evolution in graphene: preparation of high quality defect healed and hierarchically porous graphene

In this paper, a novel approach for controlling the direction of defect evolution in graphene through intercalation of organic small molecules into graphite oxide (GO) combined with a one-pot microwave-assisted reaction is reported. By using ethanol as intercalator, the bulk production of high quality graphene with its defects being satisfactorily healed is achieved. The repair of defects using extraneous carbon atoms and the hybrid state of these carbon atoms are definitely demonstrated using isotopic tracing studies with (13)C-labeled ethanol combined with (13)C solid-state NMR. The defect healed graphene shows excellent crystallinity, extremely low oxygen content (C : O ratio of 23.8) and has the highest sheet conductivity (61 500 S m(-1)) compared to all other reported graphene products derived from GO. By using methanol or benzene as intercalators, hierarchically porous graphene with a self-supported 3-dimensional framework (∼917 m(2) g(-1)) containing both macropores and mesopores (2-5 nm) is obtained. This graphene possesses a distinctive amorphous carbon structure around the edge of the nanopores, which could be conducive to enhancing the lithium storage performance (up to 580 mA h g(-1) after 300 cycles) when tested as an anode of lithium ion batteries, and might have promising applications in the field of electrode materials, catalysis, and separation, and so on. The mechanism involved for the controlled defect evolution is also proposed. The simple, ultrafast and unified strategy developed in this research provides a practical and effective approach to harness structural defects in graphene-based materials, which could also be expanded for designing and preparing other ordered carbon materials with specific structures.

Chemical control of graphene architecture: tailoring shape and properties

Single layer graphene and graphene oxide feature useful and occasionally unique properties by virtue of their two-dimensional structure. Given that there is a strong correlation between graphene architecture and its conductive, mechanical, chemical, and sorptive properties, which lead to useful technologies, the ability to systematically deform graphene into three-dimensional structures, therefore, provides a controllable, scalable route toward tailoring such properties in the final system. However, the advent of chemical methods to control graphene architecture is still coming to fruition and requires focused attention. The flexibility of the graphene system and the direct and indirect methods available to induce morphology changes of graphene sheets are first discussed in this review. Focus is then given toward chemical reactions that influence the shape of presynthesized graphene and graphene oxide sheets, from which a toolbox can be extrapolated and used in controlling the spatial arrangement of graphene sheets within composite materials and ultimately tailoring graphene-based device performance. Finally, the properties of three-dimensionally controlled graphene-based systems are highlighted for their use as batteries, strengthening additives, gas or liquid sorbents, chemical reactor platforms, and supercapacitors.

Freestanding 3D mesoporous graphene oxide for high performance energy storage applications

Freestanding 3D mesoporous graphene with enhanced capacitance for supercapacitors has been synthesized by carbon monoxide reduction, healing and activation.