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Lagos KJ, García D, Cuadrado CF, de Souza LM, Mezzacappo NF, da Silva AP, Inada N, Bagnato V, Romero MP. Carbon dots: Types, preparation, and their boosted antibacterial activity by photoactivation. Current status and future perspectives. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2023:e1887. [PMID: 37100045 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
Carbon dots (CDs) correspond to carbon-based materials (CBM) with sizes usually below 10 nm. These nanomaterials exhibit attractive properties such us low toxicity, good stability, and high conductivity, which have promoted their thorough study over the past two decades. The current review describes four types of CDs: carbon quantum dots (CQDs), graphene quantum dots (GQDs), carbon nanodots (CNDs), and carbonized polymers dots (CPDs), together with the state of the art of the main routes for their preparation, either by "top-down" or "bottom-up" approaches. Moreover, among the various usages of CDs within biomedicine, we have focused on their application as a novel class of broad-spectrum antibacterial agents, concretely, owing their photoactivation capability that triggers an enhanced antibacterial property. Our work presents the recent advances in this field addressing CDs, their composites and hybrids, applied as photosensitizers (PS), and photothermal agents (PA) within antibacterial strategies such as photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), and synchronic PDT/PTT. Furthermore, we discuss the prospects for the possible future development of large-scale preparation of CDs, and the potential for these nanomaterials to be employed in applications to combat other pathogens harmful to human health. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina J Lagos
- Department of Materials, Escuela Politécnica Nacional (EPN), Quito, Ecuador
| | - David García
- Department of Materials, Escuela Politécnica Nacional (EPN), Quito, Ecuador
| | | | | | | | - Ana Paula da Silva
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo (USP), São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Natalia Inada
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo (USP), São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Vanderlei Bagnato
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo (USP), São Carlos, Brazil
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2
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Gedda G, Sankaranarayanan SA, Putta CL, Gudimella KK, Rengan AK, Girma WM. Green synthesis of multi-functional carbon dots from medicinal plant leaves for antimicrobial, antioxidant, and bioimaging applications. Sci Rep 2023; 13:6371. [PMID: 37076562 PMCID: PMC10115846 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-33652-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/21/2023] Open
Abstract
In this research work, carbon dots (CDs) were synthesized from the renewable leaves of an indigenous medicinal plant by the one-pot sand bath method, Azadirachta indica. The synthesized CDs were characterized for its optical properties using UV-Vis, Fluorescence and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectrophotometry and for structural properties using dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and high resolution Transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM). The synthesized CDs exhibited concentration dependent biocompatibility when tested in mouse fibroblast L929 cell line. The EC50 values of biomedical studies, free radical scavenging activity (13.87 μgmL-1), and total antioxidant capacity (38 μgmL-1) proved CDs were exceptionally good. These CDs showed an appreciable zone of inhibition when examined on four bacterial (two gram-positive and gram-negative) and two fungal strains at minimum concentrations. Cellular internalisation studies performed on human breast cancer cells (MCF 7- bioimaging) revealed the applicability of CDs in bioimaging, wherein the inherent fluorescence of CDs were utilised. Thus, the CDs developed are potential as bioimaging, antioxidants and antimicrobial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gangaraju Gedda
- Department of Chemistry, School of Engineering, Presidency University, Bangalore, Karnataka, 560064, India
| | - Sri Amruthaa Sankaranarayanan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Sangareddy, Telangana, 502285, India
| | - Chandra Lekha Putta
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Sangareddy, Telangana, 502285, India
| | - Krishna Kanthi Gudimella
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, GITAM (Deemed to Be University), Rudraram, Telangana, 502329, India.
| | - Aravind Kumar Rengan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Sangareddy, Telangana, 502285, India.
| | - Wubshet Mekonnen Girma
- Department of Chemistry, College of Natural Science, Wollo University, P.O. Box: 1145, Dessie, Ethiopia.
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Bhattacharya T, Shin GH, Kim JT. Carbon Dots: Opportunities and Challenges in Cancer Therapy. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15031019. [PMID: 36986879 PMCID: PMC10059251 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15031019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, carbon dots (CDs) have been actively studied and reported for their various properties. In particular, the specific characteristics of carbon dots have been considered as a possible technique for cancer diagnosis and therapy. This is also a cutting-edge technology that offers fresh ideas for treating various disorders. Though carbon dots are still in their infancy and have not yet shown their value to society, their discovery has already resulted in some noteworthy advancements. The application of CDs indicates conversion in natural imaging. Photography using CDs has demonstrated extraordinary appropriateness in bio-imaging, the discovery of novel drugs, the delivery of targeted genes, bio-sensing, photodynamic therapy, and diagnosis. This review seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of CDs, including their benefits, characteristics, applications, and mode of action. In this overview, many CD design strategies will be highlighted. In addition, we will discuss numerous studies on cytotoxic testing to demonstrate the safety of CDs. The current study will address the production method, mechanism, ongoing research, and application of CDs in cancer diagnosis and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanima Bhattacharya
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Gye Hwa Shin
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Kunsan National University, Gunsan 54150, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence: (G.H.S.); (J.T.K.)
| | - Jun Tae Kim
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
- BioNanocomposite Research Center, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence: (G.H.S.); (J.T.K.)
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4
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Sun X, Mosleh N. Fluorescent Carbon Dots for Super-Resolution Microscopy. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:890. [PMID: 36769896 PMCID: PMC9917526 DOI: 10.3390/ma16030890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Conventional fluorescence microscopy is limited by the optical diffraction of light, which results in a spatial resolution of about half of the light's wavelength, approximately to 250-300 nm. The spatial resolution restricts the utilization of microscopes for studying subcellular structures. In order to improve the resolution and to shatter the diffraction limit, two general approaches were developed: a spatially patterned excitation method and a single-molecule localization strategy. The success of super-resolution imaging relies on bright and easily accessible fluorescent probes with special properties. Carbon dots, due to their unique properties, have been used for super-resolution imaging. Considering the importance and fast development of this field, this work focuses on the recent progress and applications of fluorescent carbon dots as probes for super-resolution imaging. The properties of carbon dots for super-resolution microscopy (SRM) are analyzed and discussed. The conclusions and outlook on this topic are also presented.
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Perikala M, Valoor R, Bhaskar N, Bhardwaj A, Basu B. One-Step Colloidal Synthesis of Non-Toxic Electroactive Carbon Dots with a Better Threshold Cytotoxicity and Cytocompatibility. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:281-291. [PMID: 36576301 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c16046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Carbon dots (CDs), because of their characteristic size (<10 nm) and highly fluorescent nature, can be internalized in biological cells or can be tagged to the key components of a living system. While these attributes can be potentially exploited for biomedical applications, the toxicity of CDs remains an important issue to be addressed. Both the synthesis approach and morphological attributes critically determine the dose-dependent toxicity and cytocompatibility of CDs. Against this perspective, we report herein a one-step colloidal synthesis of CDs using different reaction solvents that lead to the formation of three types of CDs (type I, type II, and type III CDs). The cytocompatibility and cellular uptake of CDs in human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) are dependent on the nature of functionalization and concomitantly on the type of precursors. In particular, type I CDs are synthesized using citric acid, hexadecylamine, and octadecene that are immiscible in culture media. The type II CDs synthesized using citric acid and octadecene emit green fluorescence at a 488 nm excitation and were found to be agglomerated when internalized in hMSCs, whereas the type III CDs, synthesized using citric acid and deionized water, exhibit an agglomeration-free behavior. Further, type III CDs show a wide particle distribution, wide emission bandwidth range of 280-700 nm, threshold toxicity of 1 mg/mL, and good cytocompatibility with hMSCs, much better than those in the published reports. When benchmarked against commercial graphene quantum dots, the as-synthesized type III CDs have better electrical conductivity and cytocompatibility at a given dosage. Thus, the electroactive nature of synthesized type III CDs along with their inherent fluorescent property and less cytotoxicity would enable their potential applications in bio-imaging, directional lineage commitment, and cell-based therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manasa Perikala
- Instrumentation and Applied Physics, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore560012, India
| | - Remya Valoor
- Laboratory for Biomaterials, Material Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore560012, India
| | - Nitu Bhaskar
- Laboratory for Biomaterials, Material Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore560012, India
| | - Asha Bhardwaj
- Instrumentation and Applied Physics, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore560012, India
| | - B Basu
- Laboratory for Biomaterials, Material Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore560012, India
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Combined Magnetic Hyperthermia and Photothermia with Polyelectrolyte/Gold-Coated Magnetic Nanorods. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14224913. [PMID: 36433039 PMCID: PMC9693010 DOI: 10.3390/polym14224913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Magnetite nanorods (MNRs) are synthesized based on the use of hematite nanoparticles of the desired geometry and dimensions as templates. The nanorods are shown to be highly monodisperse, with a 5:1 axial ratio, and with a 275 nm long semiaxis. The MNRs are intended to be employed as magnetic hyperthermia and photothermia agents, and as drug vehicles. To achieve a better control of their photothermia response, the particles are coated with a layer of gold, after applying a branched polyethyleneimine (PEI, 2 kDa molecular weight) shell. Magnetic hyperthermia is performed by application of alternating magnetic fields with frequencies in the range 118-210 kHz and amplitudes up to 22 kA/m. Photothermia is carried out by subjecting the particles to a near-infrared (850 nm) laser, and three monochromatic lasers in the visible spectrum with wavelengths 480 nm, 505 nm, and 638 nm. Best results are obtained with the 505 nm laser, because of the proximity between this wavelength and that of the plasmon resonance. A so-called dual therapy is also tested, and the heating of the samples is found to be faster than with either method separately, so the strengths of the individual fields can be reduced. Due to toxicity concerns with PEI coatings, viability of human hepatoblastoma HepG2 cells was tested after contact with nanorod suspensions up to 500 µg/mL in concentration. It was found that the cell viability was indistinguishable from control systems, so the particles can be considered non-cytotoxic in vitro. Finally, the release of the antitumor drug doxorubicin is investigated for the first time in the presence of the two external fields, and of their combination, with a clear improvement in the rate of drug release in the latter case.
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7
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Carbon Dots for Killing Microorganisms: An Update since 2019. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15101236. [PMID: 36297348 PMCID: PMC9607459 DOI: 10.3390/ph15101236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Frequent bacterial/fungal infections and occurrence of antibiotic resistance pose increasing threats to the public and thus require the development of new antibacterial/antifungal agents and strategies. Carbon dots (CDs) have been well demonstrated to be promising and potent antimicrobial nanomaterials and serve as potential alternatives to conventional antibiotics. In recent years, great efforts have been made by many researchers to develop new carbon dot-based antimicrobial agents to combat microbial infections. Here, as an update to our previous relevant review (C 2019, 5, 33), we summarize the recent achievements in the utilization of CDs for microbial inactivation. We review four kinds of antimicrobial CDs including nitrogen-doped CDs, metal-containing CDs, antibiotic-conjugated CDs, and photoresponsive CDs in terms of their starting materials, synthetic route, surface functionalization, antimicrobial ability, and the related antimicrobial mechanism if available. In addition, we summarize the emerging applications of CD-related antimicrobial materials in medical and industry fields. Finally, we discuss the existing challenges of antimicrobial CDs and the future research directions that are worth exploring. We believe that this review provides a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in antimicrobial CDs and may inspire the development of new CDs with desirable antimicrobial activities.
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Sendão RMS, Esteves da Silva JCG, Pinto da Silva L. Photocatalytic removal of pharmaceutical water pollutants by TiO 2 - Carbon dots nanocomposites: A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 301:134731. [PMID: 35489458 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals are becoming increasingly more relevant water contaminants, with photocatalysts (such as TiO2) being a promising approach to remove these compounds from water. However, TiO2 has poor sunlight-harvesting capacity, low photonic efficiency, and poor adsorption towards organic pollutants. One of the emerging strategies to enhance the photocatalytic performance of TiO2 is by conjugating it with fluorescent carbon dots. Herein, we performed a critical review of the development of TiO2 - carbon dots nanocomposites for the photocatalytic removal of pharmaceuticals. We found that carbon dots can improve the photocatalytic efficiency of the resulting nanocomposites, mostly due to increasing the adsorption of organic pollutants and enhancing the absorption in the visible range. However, while this approach shows significant promise, we also identified and discussed several aspects that need to be addressed before this strategy could be more widely used. We hope that this review can guide future studies aiming to the development of enhanced photocatalytic TiO2 - carbon dots nanocomposites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo M S Sendão
- Chemistry Research Unit (CIQUP), Institute of Molecular Sciences (IMS), Faculty of Sciences of University of Porto (FCUP), Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal
| | - Joaquim C G Esteves da Silva
- Chemistry Research Unit (CIQUP), Institute of Molecular Sciences (IMS), Faculty of Sciences of University of Porto (FCUP), Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal; LACOMEPHI, GreenUPorto, Department of Geosciences, Environment and Territorial Planning, Faculty of Sciences of University of Porto (FCUP), Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal
| | - Luís Pinto da Silva
- Chemistry Research Unit (CIQUP), Institute of Molecular Sciences (IMS), Faculty of Sciences of University of Porto (FCUP), Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal; LACOMEPHI, GreenUPorto, Department of Geosciences, Environment and Territorial Planning, Faculty of Sciences of University of Porto (FCUP), Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal.
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9
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An electrochemical strategy for synthesising carbon-based nanomaterials with tuned redox properties. Electrochim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2021.139734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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10
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Laddha H, Yadav P, Jain Y, Sharma M, Reza M, Agarwal M, Gupta R. One-pot microwave-assisted synthesis of blue emissive multifunctional N-S-P co-doped carbon dots as a nanoprobe for sequential detection of Cr(VI) and ascorbic acid in real samples, fluorescent ink and logic gate operation. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2021.117088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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11
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Genc MT, Yanalak G, Aksoy I, Aslan E, Patır IH. Green Carbon Dots (GCDs) for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution and Antibacterial Applications. ChemistrySelect 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202102135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Gizem Yanalak
- Department of Biochemistry Selcuk University 42030 Konya Turkey
| | - Ilknur Aksoy
- Department of Biotechnology Selcuk University 42030 Konya Turkey
| | - Emre Aslan
- Department of Biochemistry Selcuk University 42030 Konya Turkey
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Ngo YLT, Nguyen PL, Jana J, Choi WM, Chung JS, Hur SH. Simple paper-based colorimetric and fluorescent glucose sensor using N-doped carbon dots and metal oxide hybrid structures. Anal Chim Acta 2021; 1147:187-198. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2020.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 11/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Guo J, Ye S, Li H, Song J, Qu J. Novel fluorescence probe based on bright emitted carbon dots for ClO - detection in real water samples and living cells. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2020; 240:118592. [PMID: 32615499 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2020.118592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Low-toxic and environmentally friendly carbon dots (CDs) have been extensively applied in various fields. CDs usually demonstrate excellent selectivity and high sensitivity, especially in ion detection. However, the most commonly used CDs are excited by ultraviolet (UV) light and emit weak fluorescence light, limiting their application in some fields. Herein, novel fluorine and nitrogen codoped carbon dots (FNCDs) were prepared by a simple hydrothermal method and used as a fluorescent probe for ion detection. The FNCDs were excited by blue light and emitted strong green fluorescence, and the photoluminescence quantum yield was as high as 56.7%. The fluorescence of the FNCDs could be rapidly quenched by ClO- ions, indicating their potential application for ClO- detection. The fluorescence of the FNCDs was quenched by ClO- ions in less than 1 min, and the intensity of the fluorescence decreased linearly as the ClO- concentration increased from 0 to 20 μM. The detection limit was calculated to be as low as 8.2 nM, indicating high sensitivity of the FNCDs probe. The quench effect of the ClO- ions on the FNCDs probe fluorescence was not affected by other ions, demonstrating excellent selectivity of the FNCDs probe. Because of their excellent biological compatibility, the FNCDs were also successfully used to identify exogenous ClO- in living cells. These FNCDs have promising prospects as novel sensitive and inexpensive probes for the detection of pollutants and in the pathological studies of clinical diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaqing Guo
- Center for Biomedical Optics and Photonics (CBOP) & College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, PR China
| | - Shuai Ye
- Center for Biomedical Optics and Photonics (CBOP) & College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, PR China.
| | - Hao Li
- Center for Biomedical Optics and Photonics (CBOP) & College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, PR China
| | - Jun Song
- Center for Biomedical Optics and Photonics (CBOP) & College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, PR China
| | - Junle Qu
- Center for Biomedical Optics and Photonics (CBOP) & College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, PR China
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Ghiasi B, Mehdipour G, Safari N, Behboudi H, Hashemi M, Omidi M, Sefidbakht Y, Yadegari A, Hamblin MR. Theranostic applications of stimulus-responsive systems based on carbon dots. INT J POLYM MATER PO 2019; 70:117-130. [PMID: 33967355 PMCID: PMC8101985 DOI: 10.1080/00914037.2019.1695207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Over recent years, many different nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems (NDDSs) have been developed. Recently the development of stimulus-responsive NDDSs has come into sharper focus. Carbon dots (CDs) possess outstanding features such as useful optical properties, good biocompatibility, and the ability for easy surface modification. Appropriate surface modification can allow these NDDSs to respond to various chemical or physical stimuli that are characteristic of their target cells or tissue (frequently malignant cells or tumors). The present review covers recent developments of CDs in NDDSs with a particular focus on internal stimulus response capability that allows simultaneous imaging and therapeutic delivery (theranostics). Relevant stimuli associated with tumor cells and tumors include pH levels, redox potential, and different enzymatic activities can be used to activate the CDs at the desired sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Behrad Ghiasi
- Protein Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Golnaz Mehdipour
- Protein Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nooshin Safari
- Protein Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Mohadeseh Hashemi
- Protein Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
- Biomedical Engineering Department, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Meisam Omidi
- School of Dentistry, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Yahya Sefidbakht
- Protein Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir Yadegari
- School of Dentistry, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Michael R. Hamblin
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Laser Research Centre, Faculty of Health Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, South Africa
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