Application of three dimensional-printed devices in extraction technologies

Sample pretreatment is an important and necessary process in chemical analysis. Traditional sample preparation methods normally consume moderate to large quantities of solvents and reagents, are time- and labor-intensive and can be prone to error (since they usually involve multiple steps). In the past quarter century or so, modern sample preparation techniques have evolved, from the advent of solid-phase microextraction and liquid-phase microextraction to the present day where they are now widely applied to extract analytes from simple as well as complex matrices leveraging on their extremely low solvent consumption, high extraction efficiency, generally straightforward and simple operation and integration of most, if not all, of the following aspects: Sampling, cleanup, extraction, preconcentration and ready-to-inject status of the final extract. One of the most interesting features of the progress of microextraction techniques over the years lies in the development of devices, apparatus and tools to facilitate and improve their operations. This review explores the application of a recent material fabrication technology that has been receiving a lot of interest, that of three-dimensional (3D) printing, to the manipulation of microextraction. The review highlights the use of 3D-printed devices in the extraction of various analytes and in different methods to address, and improves upon some current extraction (and microextraction) problems, issues and concerns.

Simple Preparation of Metal-Impregnated FDM 3D-Printed Structures

Modifying the natural characteristics of PLA 3D-printed models is of interest in various research areas in which 3D-printing is applied. Thus, in this study, we describe the simple impregnation of FDM 3D-printed PLA samples with well-defined silver nanoparticles and an iron metal salt. Quasi-spherical and dodecahedra silver particles were strongly attached at the channels of 3D-printed milli-fluidic reactors to demonstrate their attachment and interaction with the flow, as an example. Furthermore, Fenton-like reactions were successfully developed by an iron catalyst impregnated in 3D-printed stirrer caps to induce the degradation of a dye and showed excellent reproducibility.

Mechano-Chemical Properties of Electron Beam Irradiated Polyetheretherketone

In this study, the mechano-chemical properties of aromatic polymer polyetheretherketone (PEEK) samples, irradiated by high energy electrons at 200 and 400 kGy doses, were investigated by Nanoindentation, Brillouin light scattering spectroscopy and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Irradiating electrons penetrated down to a 5 mm depth inside the polymer, as shown numerically by the monte CArlo SImulation of electroN trajectory in sOlids (CASINO) method. The irradiation of PEEK samples at 200 kGy caused the enhancement of surface roughness by almost threefold. However, an increase in the irradiation dose to 400 kGy led to a decrease in the surface roughness of the sample. Most likely, this was due to the processes of erosion and melting of the sample surface induced by high dosage irradiation. It was found that electron irradiation led to a decrease of the elastic constant C₁₁, as well as a slight decrease in the sample’s hardness, while the Young’s elastic modulus decrease was more noticeable. An intrinsic bulk property of PEEK is less radiation resistance than at its surface. The proportionality constant of Young’s modulus to indentation hardness for the pristine and irradiated samples were 0.039 and 0.038, respectively. In addition, a quasi-linear relationship between hardness and Young’s modulus was observed. The degradation of the polymer’s mechanical properties was attributed to electron irradiation-induced processes involving scission of macromolecular chains.

Low-Cost 3D-Printed Reactionware for the Determination of Fatty Acid Content in Edible Oils using a Base-Catalyzed Transesterification Method in Continuous Flow

A low-cost flow system was designed, manufactured, and tested to perform automated base-catalyzed transesterification of triacylglycerols to determine the fatty acid content in edible oils. In combination with traditional gas chromatographic analysis (GC-FID), this approach provides a semi-automated process that requires minimal manual intervention. The main flow system components, namely syringe pumps, connectors (i.e., flangeless fittings), and reactors, were manufactured using 3D-printing technology, specifically fused deposition modeling (FDM). By fine-tuning 3D-printer settings, high-quality leak-tight fittings with standard threading were manufactured in polypropylene (PP), which reduced the overall cost of the flow system significantly. Due to the enhanced reactivity in flow, lower catalyst concentrations (≤ 1.5 wt.%) were needed compared to traditional batch reactions (5 wt.%). The suitability of the automated flow method was determined by comparing results with the certified fatty acid content in sunflower seed oil from Helianthus annuus. Acceptable levels of accuracy (relative errors < 5%) and precision (RSD values ≤ 0.02%) were achieved. The mostly 3D-printed flow system was successfully used to determine the fatty acid content of sunflower and other commercial edible oils, namely avocado oil, canola oil, extra virgin olive oil, and a canola and olive oil blend. Linoleic acid (C18:2) was the major component in sunflower oil, whereas all other oils consisted mainly of oleic acid (C18:1). The fatty acid content of the edible oils was comparable to certified and literature values.

Technological Innovations in Photochemistry for Organic Synthesis: Flow Chemistry, High-Throughput Experimentation, Scale-up, and Photoelectrochemistry

Photoinduced chemical transformations have received in recent years a tremendous amount of attention, providing a plethora of opportunities to synthetic organic chemists. However, performing a photochemical transformation can be quite a challenge because of various issues related to the delivery of photons. These challenges have barred the widespread adoption of photochemical steps in the chemical industry. However, in the past decade, several technological innovations have led to more reproducible, selective, and scalable photoinduced reactions. Herein, we provide a comprehensive overview of these exciting technological advances, including flow chemistry, high-throughput experimentation, reactor design and scale-up, and the combination of photo- and electro-chemistry.

Facile mussel-inspired polydopamine-coated 3D-printed bioreactors for continuous flow biocatalysis

Enantiopure alcohol production by a flow system of 3D-printed bioreactor with immobilized Geotrichum candidum acetophenone reductase (GcAPRD).

A Review on Additive Manufacturing of Micromixing Devices

In recent years, additive manufacturing has gained importance in a wide range of research applications such as medicine, biotechnology, engineering, etc. It has become one of the most innovative and high-performance manufacturing technologies of the moment. This review aims to show and discuss the characteristics of different existing additive manufacturing technologies for the construction of micromixers, which are devices used to mix two or more fluids at microscale. The present manuscript discusses all the choices to be made throughout the printing life cycle of a micromixer in order to achieve a high-quality microdevice. Resolution, precision, materials, and price, amongst other relevant characteristics, are discussed and reviewed in detail for each printing technology. Key information, suggestions, and future prospects are provided for manufacturing of micromixing machines based on the results from this review.

Binder-jetting 3D printer capable of voxel-based control over deposited ink volume, adaptive layer thickness, and selective multi-pass printing

The limited control over the printing process in commercial powder bed 3D printers hinders the exploration of novel materials and applications. In this study, a custom binder-jetting 3D printer was developed. The resulting fine-grained control over the printing process enables features such as voxel-based control over the printed ink volume, adaptive layer thickness, and selective multi-pass printing. A protocol was developed to optimize the 3D printing process for new build materials and binders, in which resolution tests were used as a guideline for improving the dimensional accuracy. As a demonstration of the voxel-based control over the printing process, a functionally graded object was printed.

Applications of 3D-Printed PEEK via Fused Filament Fabrication: A Systematic Review

Polyether ether ketone (PEEK) is an organic polymer that has excellent mechanical, chemical properties and can be additively manufactured (3D-printed) with ease. The use of 3D-printed PEEK has been growing in many fields. This article systematically reviews the current status of 3D-printed PEEK that has been used in various areas, including medical, chemical, aerospace, and electronics. A search of the use of 3D-printed PEEK articles published until September 2021 in various fields was performed using various databases. After reviewing the articles, and those which matched the inclusion criteria set for this systematic review, we found that the printing of PEEK is mainly performed by fused filament fabrication (FFF) or fused deposition modeling (FDM) printers. Based on the results of this systematic review, it was concluded that PEEK is a versatile material, and 3D-printed PEEK is finding applications in numerous industries. However, most of the applications are still in the research phase. Still, given how the research on PEEK is progressing and its additive manufacturing, it will soon be commercialized for many applications in numerous industries.

Current and future trends of additive manufacturing for chemistry applications: a review

Three-dimensional (3-D) printing, also known as additive manufacturing, refers to a method used to generate a physical object by joining materials in a layer-by-layer process from a three-dimensional virtual model. 3-D printing technology has been traditionally employed in rapid prototyping, engineering, and industrial design. More recently, new applications continue to emerge; this is because of its exceptional advantage and flexibility over the traditional manufacturing process. Unlike other conventional manufacturing methods, which are fundamentally subtractive, 3-D printing is additive and, therefore, produces less waste. This review comprehensively summarises the application of additive manufacturing technologies in chemistry, chemical synthesis, and catalysis with particular attention to the production of general laboratory hardware, analytical facilities, reaction devices, and catalytically active substances. It also focuses on new and upcoming applications such as digital chemical synthesis, automation, and robotics in a synthetic environment. While discussing the contribution of this research area in the last decade, the current, future, and economic opportunities of additive manufacturing in chemical research and material development were fully covered.

Design of a Combined Modular and 3D-Printed Falling Film Solution Layer Crystallizer for Intermediate Purification in Continuous Production of Pharmaceuticals

A highly scalable combined modular and 3D-printed falling film crystallization device is developed and demonstrated herein; the device uses a small, complex, printed overflow-based film distribution part that ensures formation of a well-distributed heated liquid film around a modular, tubular residence time/crystallizer section, enabling extended residence times to be achieved. A model API (ibuprofen) and impurity (ibuprofen ethyl ester) were used as a test system in the evaluation of the novel crystallizer design. The proposed crystallizer was run using three operational configurations: batch, cyclical batch, and continuous feed, all with intermittent removal of product. Results were suitable for intermediate purification requirements, and stable operation was demonstrated over multiple cycles, indicating that this approach should be compatible with parallel semicontinuous operation for intermediate purification and solvent swap applications in the manufacture of drugs.

Development of a continuous-flow system with immobilized biocatalysts towards sustainable bioprocessing

Implementing immobilized biocatalysts in continuous-flow systems can enable a sustainable process through enhanced enzyme stability, better transport and process continuity as well as simplified recycle and downstream processing.

Engineering aspects of FlowNMR spectroscopy setups for online analysis of solution-phase processes

In this article we review some fundamental engineering concepts and evaluate components and materials required to assemble and operate safe and effective FlowNMR setups that reliably generate meaningful results.

3D printing and continuous flow chemistry technology to advance pharmaceutical manufacturing in developing countries

The realization of a downward spiralling of diseases in developing countries requires them to become self-sufficient in pharmaceutical products. One of the ways to meet this need is by boosting the local production of active pharmaceutical ingredients and embracing enabling technologies. Both 3D printing and continuous flow chemistry are being exploited rapidly and they are opening huge avenues of possibilities in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries due to their well-documented benefits. The main barrier to entry for the continuous flow chemistry technique in low-income settings is the cost of set-up and maintenance through purchasing of spare flow reactors. This review article discusses the technical considerations for the convergence of state-of-the-art technologies, 3D printing and continuous flow chemistry for pharmaceutical manufacturing applications in developing countries. An overview of the 3D printing technique and its application in fabrication of continuous flow components and systems is provided. Finally, quality considerations for satisfying regulatory requirements for the approval of 3D printed equipment are underscored. An in-depth understanding of the interrelated aspects in the implementation of these technologies is crucial for the realization of sustainable, good quality chemical reactionware.

An open source toolkit for 3D printed fluidics

As 3D printing technologies become more accessible, chemists are beginning to design and develop their own bespoke printable devices particularly applied to the field of flow chemistry. Designing functional flow components can often be a lengthy and laborious process requiring complex 3D modelling and multiple design iterations. In this work, we present an easy to follow design workflow for minimising the complexity of this design optimization process. The workflow follows the development of a 3D printable ‘toolkit’ of common fittings and connectors required for constructing basic flow chemistry configurations. The toolkit components consist of male threaded nuts, junction connectors and a Luer adapter. The files have themselves been made freely available and open source. The low cost associated with the toolkit may encourage educators to incorporate flow chemistry practical work into their syllabus such that students may be introduced to the principles of flow chemistry earlier on in their education and furthermore, may develop an early appreciation of the benefits of 3D printing in scientific research. In addition to the printable toolkit, the use of the 3D modelling platform – Rhino3D has been demonstrated for its application in fluidic reactor chip design modification. The simple user interface of the programme reduces the complexity and workload involved in printable fluidic reactor design.

The rise of continuous flow biocatalysis – fundamentals, very recent developments and future perspectives

Very recent developments in the field of biocatalysis in continuously operated systems. Special attention on the future perspectives in this key emerging technological area ranging from process analytical technologies to digitalization.