1
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Surendran A, Pereverzev AY, Roithová J. Intricacies of Mass Transport during Electrocatalysis: A Journey through Iron Porphyrin-Catalyzed Oxygen Reduction. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:15619-15626. [PMID: 38778765 PMCID: PMC11157527 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.4c04989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Electrochemical steps are increasingly attractive for green chemistry. Understanding reactions at the electrode-solution interface, governed by kinetics and mass transport, is crucial. Traditional insights into these mechanisms are limited, but our study bridges this gap through an integrated approach combining voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. This technique offers real-time monitoring of the chemical processes at the electrode-solution interface, tracking changes in intermediates and products during reactions. Applied to the electrochemical reduction of oxygen catalyzed by the iron(II) tetraphenyl porphyrin complex, it successfully reveals various reaction intermediates and degradation pathways under different kinetic regimes. Our findings illuminate complex electrocatalytic processes and propose new ways for studying reactions in alternating current and voltage-pulse electrosynthesis. This advancement enhances our capacity to optimize electrochemical reactions for more sustainable chemical processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adarsh
Koovakattil Surendran
- Department of Spectroscopy and Catalysis,
Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud
University, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Aleksandr Y. Pereverzev
- Department of Spectroscopy and Catalysis,
Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud
University, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jana Roithová
- Department of Spectroscopy and Catalysis,
Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud
University, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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2
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Zhang HT, Xie F, Guo YH, Xiao Y, Zhang MT. Selective Four-Electron Reduction of Oxygen by a Nonheme Heterobimetallic CuFe Complex. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202310775. [PMID: 37837365 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202310775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/16/2023]
Abstract
We report herein the first nonheme CuFe oxygen reduction catalyst ([CuII (bpbp)(μ-OAc)2 FeIII ]2+ , CuFe-OAc), which serves as a functional model of cytochrome c oxidase and can catalyze oxygen reduction to water with a turnover frequency of 2.4×103 s-1 and selectivity of 96.0 % in the presence of Et3 NH+ . This performance significantly outcompetes its homobimetallic analogues (2.7 s-1 of CuCu-OAc with %H2 O2 selectivity of 98.9 %, and inactive of FeFe-OAc) under the same conditions. Structure-activity relationship studies, in combination with density functional theory calculation, show that the CuFe center efficiently mediates O-O bond cleavage via a CuII (μ-η1 : η2 -O2 )FeIII peroxo intermediate in which the peroxo ligand possesses distinctive coordinating and electronic character. Our work sheds light on the nature of Cu/Fe heterobimetallic cooperation in oxygen reduction catalysis and demonstrates the potential of this synergistic effect in the design of nonheme oxygen reduction catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Tao Zhang
- Center of Basic Molecular Science (CBMS), Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Fei Xie
- Center of Basic Molecular Science (CBMS), Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Yu-Hua Guo
- Center of Basic Molecular Science (CBMS), Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Yao Xiao
- Center of Basic Molecular Science (CBMS), Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Ming-Tian Zhang
- Center of Basic Molecular Science (CBMS), Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
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3
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Muthusamy S, Sabhapathy P, Raghunath P, Sabbah A, Chang YC, Krishnamoorthy V, Ho TT, Chiou JW, Lin MC, Chen LC, Chen KH. Mimicking Metalloenzyme Microenvironments in the Transition Metal-Single Atom Catalysts for Electrochemical Hydrogen Peroxide Synthesis in an Acidic Medium. SMALL METHODS 2023; 7:e2300234. [PMID: 37401196 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202300234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/05/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical reduction of oxygen into hydrogen peroxide in an acidic medium offers an energy-efficient and green H2 O2 synthesis as an alternative to the energy-intensive anthraquinone process. Unfortunately, high overpotential, low production rates, and fierce competition from traditional four-electron reduction limit it. In this study, a metalloenzyme-like active structure is mimicked in carbon-based single-atom electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction to H2 O2 . Using a carbonization strategy, the primary electronic structure of the metal center with nitrogen and oxygen coordination is modulated, followed by epoxy oxygen functionalities close to the metal active sites. In an acidic medium, CoNOC active structures proceed with greater than 98% H2 O2 selectivity (2e- /2H+ ) rather than CoNC active sites that are selective to H2 O (4e- /4H+ ). Among all MNOC (M = Fe, Co, Mn, and Ni) single-atom electrocatalysts, the CoNOC is the most selective (> 98%) for H2 O2 production, with a mass activity of 10 A g-1 at 0.60 V vs. RHE. X-ray absorption spectroscopy is used to identify the formation of unsymmetrical MNOC active structures. Experimental results are also compared to density functional theory calculations, which revealed that the structure-activity relationship of the epoxy-surrounded CoNOC active structure reaches optimum (ΔG*OOH ) binding energies for high selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saravanakumar Muthusamy
- Sustainable Chemical Science and Technology, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica, Nangang, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
- Institute of Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Nangang, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Yang-Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, 30010, Taiwan
- Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
- Center for Condensed Matter Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Palani Sabhapathy
- Center for Condensed Matter Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Putikam Raghunath
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Yang-Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, 30010, Taiwan
| | - Amr Sabbah
- Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
- Tabbin Institute for Metallurgical Studies, Cairo, 11421, Egypt
| | - Yu-Chung Chang
- X-ray Absorption Group, National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center, Hsinchu, 30076, Taiwan
| | - Vimal Krishnamoorthy
- Center for Condensed Matter Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, 10607, Taiwan
| | - Thi-Thong Ho
- Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Jau-Wern Chiou
- Department of Applied Physics, National University of Kaohsiung, Kaohsiung, 811726, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Chang Lin
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Yang-Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, 30010, Taiwan
| | - Li-Chyong Chen
- Center for Condensed Matter Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
- Department of Physics, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
- Center of Atomic Initiative for New Materials, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Kuei-Hsien Chen
- Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
- Center for Condensed Matter Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
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4
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Zhao Y, Adiyeri Saseendran DP, Huang C, Triana CA, Marks WR, Chen H, Zhao H, Patzke GR. Oxygen Evolution/Reduction Reaction Catalysts: From In Situ Monitoring and Reaction Mechanisms to Rational Design. Chem Rev 2023; 123:6257-6358. [PMID: 36944098 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
The oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) are core steps of various energy conversion and storage systems. However, their sluggish reaction kinetics, i.e., the demanding multielectron transfer processes, still render OER/ORR catalysts less efficient for practical applications. Moreover, the complexity of the catalyst-electrolyte interface makes a comprehensive understanding of the intrinsic OER/ORR mechanisms challenging. Fortunately, recent advances of in situ/operando characterization techniques have facilitated the kinetic monitoring of catalysts under reaction conditions. Here we provide selected highlights of recent in situ/operando mechanistic studies of OER/ORR catalysts with the main emphasis placed on heterogeneous systems (primarily discussing first-row transition metals which operate under basic conditions), followed by a brief outlook on molecular catalysts. Key sections in this review are focused on determination of the true active species, identification of the active sites, and monitoring of the reactive intermediates. For in-depth insights into the above factors, a short overview of the metrics for accurate characterizations of OER/ORR catalysts is provided. A combination of the obtained time-resolved reaction information and reliable activity data will then guide the rational design of new catalysts. Strategies such as optimizing the restructuring process as well as overcoming the adsorption-energy scaling relations will be discussed. Finally, pending current challenges and prospects toward the understanding and development of efficient heterogeneous catalysts and selected homogeneous catalysts are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonggui Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Chong Huang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Carlos A Triana
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Walker R Marks
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Hang Chen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Han Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Greta R Patzke
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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5
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Harraz DM, Weng S, Surendranath Y. Electrochemically Quantifying Oxygen Reduction Selectivity in Nonaqueous Electrolytes. ACS Catal 2023. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.2c04564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Deiaa M. Harraz
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Sophia Weng
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Yogesh Surendranath
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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6
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Obisesan SV, Rose C, Farnum BH, Goldsmith CR. Co(II) Complex with a Covalently Attached Pendent Quinol Selectively Reduces O 2 to H 2O. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:22826-22830. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c08315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Christian R. Goldsmith
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama36849, United States
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7
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Tan JJ, Sun XX, Qi XF, Zhan SZ. A trinuclear cobalt complex, a new electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction to H2O2. INORG CHEM COMMUN 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.inoche.2022.110053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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8
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Perivoliotis DK, Stangel C, Sato Y, Suenaga K, Tagmatarchis N. Photo/Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Production by Manganese and Iron Porphyrin/Molybdenum Disulfide Nanoensembles. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2203032. [PMID: 35980982 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202203032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) 2e- pathway provides an alternative and green route for industrial hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) production. Herein, the ORR photo/electrocatalytic activity in the alkaline electrolyte of manganese and iron porphyrin (MnP and FeP, respectively) electrostatically associated with modified 1T/2H MoS2 nanosheets is reported. The best performing catalyst, MnP/MoS2 , exhibits excellent electrocatalytic performance towards selective H2 O2 formation, with a low overpotential of 20 mV for the 2e- ORR pathway (Eons = 680 mV vs RHE) and an H2 O2 yield up to 99%. Upon visible light irradiation, MnP/MoS2 catalyst shows significant activity enhancement along with good stability. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy assays suggest a reduced charge transfer resistance value at the interface with the electrolyte, indicating an efficient intra-ensemble transfer process of the photo-excited electrons through the formation of a type II heterojunction or Schottky contact, and therefore justifies the boosted electrochemical activities in the presence of light. Overall, this work is expected to inspire the design of novel advanced photo/electrocatalysts, paving the way for sustainable industrial H2 O2 production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios K Perivoliotis
- Theoretical and Physical Chemistry Institute, National Hellenic Research Foundation, 48 Vassileos Constantinou Avenue, Athens, 11635, Greece
- Department of Physics, Umeå University, Umeå, 90187, Sweden
| | - Christina Stangel
- Theoretical and Physical Chemistry Institute, National Hellenic Research Foundation, 48 Vassileos Constantinou Avenue, Athens, 11635, Greece
| | - Yuta Sato
- Nanomaterials Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, 305-8565, Japan
| | - Kazu Suenaga
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN), Osaka University, Mihogaoka 8-1, Osaka, 567-0047, Japan
| | - Nikos Tagmatarchis
- Theoretical and Physical Chemistry Institute, National Hellenic Research Foundation, 48 Vassileos Constantinou Avenue, Athens, 11635, Greece
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9
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Armillotta F, Bidoggia D, Baronio S, Biasin P, Annese A, Scardamaglia M, Zhu S, Bozzini B, Modesti S, Peressi M, Vesselli E. Single Metal Atom Catalysts and ORR: H-Bonding, Solvation, and the Elusive Hydroperoxyl Intermediate. ACS Catal 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.2c02029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Armillotta
- Department of Physics, University of Trieste, via A. Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste, Italy
| | - Davide Bidoggia
- Department of Physics, University of Trieste, via A. Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste, Italy
| | - Stefania Baronio
- Department of Physics, University of Trieste, via A. Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste, Italy
| | - Pietro Biasin
- Department of Physics, University of Trieste, via A. Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste, Italy
| | - Antonio Annese
- Department of Physics, University of Trieste, via A. Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste, Italy
| | | | - Suyun Zhu
- MAX IV Laboratory, Fotongatan 8, 224 84 Lund, Sweden
| | | | - Silvio Modesti
- Department of Physics, University of Trieste, via A. Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste, Italy
- CNR-IOM, Area Science Park, S.S. 14 km 163.5, 34149 Basovizza, Trieste, Italy
| | - Maria Peressi
- Department of Physics, University of Trieste, via A. Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste, Italy
| | - Erik Vesselli
- Department of Physics, University of Trieste, via A. Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste, Italy
- CNR-IOM, Area Science Park, S.S. 14 km 163.5, 34149 Basovizza, Trieste, Italy
- Center for Energy, Environment and Transport Giacomo Ciamician, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy
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10
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Cvjetan N, Kissner R, Bajuk-Bogdanović D, Ćirić-Marjanović G, Walde P. Hemin-catalyzed oxidative oligomerization of p-aminodiphenylamine (PADPA) in the presence of aqueous sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS) micelles. RSC Adv 2022; 12:13154-13167. [PMID: 35520130 PMCID: PMC9063397 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra02198f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In a previous report on the enzymatic synthesis of the conductive emeraldine salt form of polyaniline (PANI-ES) in aqueous solution using PADPA (p-aminodiphenylamine) as monomer, horseradish peroxidase isoenzyme C (HRPC) was applied as a catalyst at pH = 4.3 with H2O2 as a terminal oxidant. In that work, anionic vesicles were added to the reaction mixture for (i) guiding the reaction to obtain poly(PADPA) products that resemble PANI-ES, and for (ii) preventing product precipitation (known as the “template effect”). In the work now presented, instead of native HRPC, only its prosthetic group ferric heme b (= hemin) was utilized as a catalyst, and micelles formed from SDBS (sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate) served as templates. For the elaborated optimal reaction conditions, complementary UV/vis/NIR, EPR, and Raman spectroscopy measurements clearly showed that the reaction mixture obtained after completion of the reaction contained PANI-ES-like products as dominating species, very similar to the products formed with HRPC as catalyst. HEPES (4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonate) was found to have a positive effect on the reaction rate as compared to dihydrogenphosphate. This work is the first on the template-assisted formation of PANI-ES type products under mild, environmentally friendly conditions using hemin as a cost-effective catalyst. Polyaniline emeraldine salt-type products were synthesized under mild, environmentally friendly conditions using hemin as a cost-effective catalyst, p-aminodiphenylamine (PADPA) as a monomer, and micelles formed from SDBS as templates.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Nemanja Cvjetan
- Department of Materials, Laboratory for Multifunctional Materials, ETH Zürich Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 5 8093 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Reinhard Kissner
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 2 8093 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Danica Bajuk-Bogdanović
- Faculty of Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade Studentski trg 12-16 11158 Belgrade Serbia
| | - Gordana Ćirić-Marjanović
- Faculty of Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade Studentski trg 12-16 11158 Belgrade Serbia
| | - Peter Walde
- Department of Materials, Laboratory for Multifunctional Materials, ETH Zürich Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 5 8093 Zürich Switzerland
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11
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Li Y, Wang N, Lei H, Li X, Zheng H, Wang H, Zhang W, Cao R. Bioinspired N4-metallomacrocycles for electrocatalytic oxygen reduction reaction. Coord Chem Rev 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2021.213996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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12
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Mondal P, Ishigami I, Gérard EF, Lim C, Yeh SR, de Visser SP, Wijeratne GB. Proton-coupled electron transfer reactivities of electronically divergent heme superoxide intermediates: a kinetic, thermodynamic, and theoretical study. Chem Sci 2021; 12:8872-8883. [PMID: 34257888 PMCID: PMC8246096 DOI: 10.1039/d1sc01952j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Heme superoxides are one of the most versatile metallo-intermediates in biology, and they mediate a vast variety of oxidation and oxygenation reactions involving O2(g). Overall proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) processes they facilitate may proceed via several different mechanistic pathways, attributes of which are not yet fully understood. Herein we present a detailed investigation into concerted PCET events of a series of geometrically similar, but electronically disparate synthetic heme superoxide mimics, where unprecedented, PCET feasibility-determining electronic effects of the heme center have been identified. These electronic factors firmly modulate both thermodynamic and kinetic parameters that are central to PCET, as supported by our experimental and theoretical observations. Consistently, the most electron-deficient superoxide adduct shows the strongest driving force for PCET, whereas the most electron-rich system remains unreactive. The pivotal role of these findings in understanding significant heme systems in biology, as well as in alternative energy applications is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pritam Mondal
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham Birmingham AL 35205 USA
| | - Izumi Ishigami
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine The Bronx New York 10461 USA
| | - Emilie F Gérard
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester 131 Princess Street Manchester M1 7DN UK
| | - Chaeeun Lim
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham Birmingham AL 35205 USA
| | - Syun-Ru Yeh
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine The Bronx New York 10461 USA
| | - Sam P de Visser
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester 131 Princess Street Manchester M1 7DN UK
| | - Gayan B Wijeratne
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham Birmingham AL 35205 USA
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