Cancer nanomedicine: a review of nano-therapeutics and challenges ahead

Maximizing arsenic trioxide's anticancer potential: Targeted nanocarriers for solid tumor therapy

Arsenic trioxide (ATO) has gained significant attention due to its promising therapeutic effects in treating different diseases, particularly acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL). Its potent anticancer mechanisms have been extensively studied. Despite the great efficacy ATO shows in fighting cancers, drawbacks in the clinical use are obvious, especially for solid tumors, which include rapid renal clearance and short half-life, severe adverse effects, and high toxicity to normal cells. Recently, the emergence of nanomedicine offers a potential solution to these limitations. The enhanced biocompatibility, excellent targeting capability, and desirable effectiveness have attracted much interest. Therefore, we summarized various nanocarriers for targeted delivery of ATO to solid tumors. We also provided detailed anticancer mechanisms of ATO in treating cancers, its clinical trials and shortcomings as well as the combination therapy of ATO and other chemotherapeutic agents for reduced drug resistance and synergistic effects. Finally, the future study direction and prospects were also presented.

Illuminating new possibilities: Effects of copper oxide nanoparticles on gastrointestinal adenocarcinoma cells in hypoxic condition

Cancer remains a major global health concern, necessitating the development of novel therapeutic approaches. Hypoxia is a common characteristic of solid tumors that plays a critical role in tumor progression, making it a prime target for anticancer therapies. This study aimed to determine the effects of copper oxide nanoparticles (CuONPs) on human gastrointestinal cancer cells in hypoxic condition for the first time. Toxicity of CuONPs was evaluated on human colon and gastric adenocarcinoma cells and normal fibroblasts by alamarBlue assay. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to study the effects of CuONPs on genes involved in cell apoptosis. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of CuONPs in hypoxic condition, molecular docking was conducted on HIF-1α. Results revealed dose- and cell-type-dependent toxic effects of CuONPs, as a more significant (p < 0.0001) decrease in viability of LoVo cells (23 %) was observed compared to MKN-45 and HDF cells. In addition, CuONPs significantly (p < 0.0001) reduced LoVo cell viability down to 30.2 % in hypoxic condition. Gene expression analysis revealed significant (p < 0.0001) overexpression of P53 and BAX but downregulation of BCL-2 and CCND1 after treatment with CuONPs. Molecular docking indicated the preferable binding of CuONPs to the HIF-1α PAS-B domain through interaction with 15 residues with -4.8 kcal/mol binding energy. Our findings open up new possibilities for modulating HIF-1 activity and inhibiting hypoxia-induced tumor progression.

Folic acid modified precision nanocarriers: charting new frontiers in breast cancer management beyond conventional therapies

Breast cancer presents a significant global health challenge, ranking highest incidence rate among all types of cancers. Functionalised nanocarriers offer a promising solution for precise drug delivery by actively targeting cancer cells through specific receptors, notably folate receptors. By overcoming the limitations of passive targeting in conventional therapies, this approach holds the potential for enhanced treatment efficacy through combination therapy. Encouraging outcomes from studies like in vitro and in vivo, underscore the promise of this innovative approach. This review explores the therapeutic potential of FA (Folic acid) functionalised nanocarriers tailored for breast cancer management, discussing various chemical modification techniques for functionalization. It examines FA-conjugated nanocarriers containing chemotherapeutics to enhance treatment efficacy and addresses the pharmacokinetic aspect of these functionalised nanocarriers. Additionally, the review integrates active targeting via folic acid with theranostics, photothermal therapy, and photodynamic therapy, offering a comprehensive management strategy. Emphasising rigorous experimental validation for practical utility, the review underscores the need to bridge laboratory research to clinical application. While these functionalised nanocarriers show promise, their credibility and applicability in real-world settings necessitate thorough validation for effective clinical use.

Nanostructured Biomaterials in 3D Tumor Tissue Engineering Scaffolds: Regenerative Medicine and Immunotherapies

The evaluation of nanostructured biomaterials and medicines is associated with 2D cultures that provide insight into biological mechanisms at the molecular level, while critical aspects of the tumor microenvironment (TME) are provided by the study of animal xenograft models. More realistic models that can histologically reproduce human tumors are provided by tissue engineering methods of co-culturing cells of varied phenotypes to provide 3D tumor spheroids that recapitulate the dynamic TME in 3D matrices. The novel approaches of creating 3D tumor models are combined with tumor tissue engineering (TTE) scaffolds including hydrogels, bioprinted materials, decellularized tissues, fibrous and nanostructured matrices. This review focuses on the use of nanostructured materials in cancer therapy and regeneration, and the development of realistic models for studying TME molecular and immune characteristics. Tissue regeneration is an important aspect of TTE scaffolds used for restoring the normal function of the tissues, while providing cancer treatment. Thus, this article reports recent advancements in the development of 3D TTE models for antitumor drug screening, studying tumor metastasis, and tissue regeneration. Also, this review identifies the significant opportunities of using 3D TTE scaffolds in the evaluation of the immunological mechanisms and processes involved in the application of immunotherapies.

Synergistic Effect of Ferroptosis-Inducing Nanoparticles and X-Ray Irradiation Combination Therapy

Ferroptosis, characterized by the induction of cell death via lipid peroxidation, has been actively studied over the last few years and has shown the potential to improve the efficacy of cancer nanomedicine in an iron-dependent manner. Radiation therapy, a common treatment method, has limitations as a stand-alone treatment due to radiation resistance and safety as it affects even normal tissues. Although ferroptosis-inducing drugs help alleviate radiation resistance, there are no safe ferroptosis-inducing drugs that can be considered for clinical application and are still in the research stage. Here, the effectiveness of combined treatment with radiotherapy with Fe and hyaluronic acid-based nanoparticles (FHA-NPs) to directly induce ferroptosis, considering the clinical applications is reported. Through the induction of ferroptosis by FHA-NPs and apoptosis by X-ray irradiation, the therapeutic efficiency of cancer is greatly improved both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, Monte Carlo simulations are performed to assess the physical interactions of the X-rays with the iron-oxide nanoparticle. The study provides a deeper understanding of the synergistic effect of ferroptosis and X-ray irradiation combination therapy. Furthermore, the study can serve as a valuable reference for elucidating the role and mechanisms of ferroptosis in radiation therapy.

Phytonanomedicine as a therapeutic regulator of the tumor microenvironment for inhibiting cancer metastasis

TWEETABLE ABSTRACT "The development of phytonanomedicine-based approach seems to be a very promising candidate for modulating protumorigenic tumor microenvironment to suppress cancer metastasis."

Nanoscale strides: exploring innovative therapies for breast cancer treatment

Breast cancer (BC) is a predominant malignancy in women that constitutes approximately 30% of all cancer cases and has a mortality rate of 14% in recent years. The prevailing therapies include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, each with its own limitations and challenges. Despite oral or intravenous administration, there are numerous barriers to accessing anti-BC agents before they reach the tumor site, including physical, physiological, and biophysical barriers. The complexity of BC pathogenesis, attributed to a combination of endogenous, chronic, intrinsic, extrinsic and genetic factors, further complicates its management. Due to the limitations of existing cancer treatment approaches, there is a need to explore novel, efficacious solutions. Nanodrug delivery has emerged as a promising avenue in cancer chemotherapy, aiming to enhance drug bioavailability while mitigating adverse effects. In contrast to conventional chemotherapy, cancer nanotechnology leverages improved permeability to achieve comprehensive disruption of cancer cells. This approach also presented superior pharmacokinetic profiles. The application of nanotechnology in cancer therapeutics includes nanotechnological tools, but a comprehensive review cannot cover all facets. Thus, this review concentrates specifically on BC treatment. The focus lies in the successful implementation of systematic nanotherapeutic strategies, demonstrating their superiority over conventional methods in delivering anti-BC agents. Nanotechnology-driven drug delivery holds immense potential in treating BC. By surmounting multiple barriers and capitalizing on improved permeability, nanodrug delivery has demonstrated enhanced efficacy and reduced adverse effects compared to conventional therapies. This review highlights the significance of systematic nanotherapy approaches, emphasizing the evolving landscape of BC management.

Doxorubicin loaded thermostable nanoarchaeosomes: a next-generation drug carrier for breast cancer therapeutics

Breast cancer has a poor prognosis due to the toxic side effects associated with high doses of chemotherapy. Liposomal drug encapsulation has resulted in clinical success in enhancing chemotherapy tolerability. However, the formulation faces severe limitations with a lack of colloidal stability, reduced drug efficiency, and difficulties in storage conditions. Nanoarchaeosomes (NA) are a new generation of highly stable nanovesicles composed of the natural ether lipids extracted from archaea. In our study, we synthesized and characterized the NA, evaluated their colloidal stability, drug release potential, and anticancer efficacy. Transmission electron microscopy images have shown that the NA prepared from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Aeropyrum pernix K1 was in the size range of 61 ± 3 nm. The dynamic light scattering result has confirmed that the NA were stable at acidic pH (pH 4) and high temperature (70 °C). The NA exhibited excellent colloidal stability for 50 days with storage conditions at room temperature. The cell viability results have shown that the pure NA did not induce cytotoxicity in NIH 3T3 fibroblast cells and are biocompatible. Then NA were loaded with doxorubicin (NAD), and FTIR and UV-vis spectroscopy results have confirmed high drug loading efficiency of 97 ± 1% with sustained drug release for 48 h. The in vitro cytotoxicity studies in MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines showed that NAD induced cytotoxicity at less than 10 nM concentration. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) results confirmed that NAD induced late apoptosis in nearly 92% of MCF-7 cells and necrosis in the remaining cells with cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase. Our results confirmed that the NA could be a potential next-generation carrier with excellent stability, high drug loading efficiency, sustained drug release ability, and increased therapeutic efficacy, thus reducing the side effects of conventional drugs.

Nanomedicine as a multimodal therapeutic paradigm against cancer: on the way forward in advancing precision therapy

Recent years have witnessed dramatic improvements in nanotechnology-based cancer therapeutics, and it continues to evolve from the use of conventional therapies (chemotherapy, surgery, and radiotherapy) to increasingly multi-complex approaches incorporating thermal energy-based tumor ablation (e.g. magnetic hyperthermia and photothermal therapy), dynamic therapy (e.g. photodynamic therapy), gene therapy, sonodynamic therapy (e.g. ultrasound), immunotherapy, and more recently real-time treatment efficacy monitoring (e.g. theranostic MRI-sensitive nanoparticles). Unlike monotherapy, these multimodal therapies (bimodal, i.e., a combination of two therapies, and trimodal, i.e., a combination of more than two therapies) incorporating nanoplatforms have tremendous potential to improve the tumor tissue penetration and retention of therapeutic agents through selective active/passive targeting effects. These combinatorial therapies can correspondingly alleviate drug response against hypoxic/acidic and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironments and promote/induce tumor cell death through various multi-mechanisms such as apoptosis, autophagy, and reactive oxygen-based cytotoxicity, e.g., ferroptosis, etc. These multi-faced approaches such as targeting the tumor vasculature, neoangiogenic vessels, drug-resistant cancer stem cells (CSCs), preventing intra/extravasation to reduce metastatic growth, and modulation of antitumor immune responses work complementary to each other, enhancing treatment efficacy. In this review, we discuss recent advances in different nanotechnology-mediated synergistic/additive combination therapies, emphasizing their underlying mechanisms for improving cancer prognosis and survival outcomes. Additionally, significant challenges such as CSCs, hypoxia, immunosuppression, and distant/local metastasis associated with therapy resistance and tumor recurrences are reviewed. Furthermore, to improve the clinical precision of these multimodal nanoplatforms in cancer treatment, their successful bench-to-clinic translation with controlled and localized drug-release kinetics, maximizing the therapeutic window while addressing safety and regulatory concerns are discussed. As we advance further, exploiting these strategies in clinically more relevant models such as patient-derived xenografts and 3D organoids will pave the way for the application of precision therapy.

Current trends and emerging patterns in the application of nanomaterials for ovarian cancer research: a bibliometric analysis

Introduction: Ovarian cancer remains to be a significant cause of global cancer-related mortality. In recent years, there has been a surge of studies in investigating the application of nanomaterials in the diagnosis and treatment of ovarian cancer. This study aims to conduct a comprehensive bibliometric analysis regarding nanomaterial-based researches on ovarian cancer to evaluate the current state and emerging patterns in this field. Methods: A thorough literature search on the Web of Science Core Collection database was conducted to identify articles focused on nanomaterial-based ovarian cancer researches. The studies that met the inclusion criteria were selected for further analysis. VOSviewer and CiteSpace were applied for the bibliometric and visual analyses of the selected publications. Results: A total of 2,426 studies were included in this study. The number of annual publications showed a consistent upward trend from 2003 to 2023. Notably, China, the United States, and India have emerged as the leading contributors in this field, accounting for 37.39%, 34.04%, and 5.69% of the publications, respectively. The Chinese Academy of Sciences and Anil K. Sood were identified as the most influential institution and author, respectively. Furthermore, the International Journal of Nanomedicine was the most frequently cited journal. In terms of the research focus, significant attention has been directed towards nanomaterial-related drug delivery, while the exploration of immunogenic cell death and metal-organic frameworks represented recent areas of interest. Conclusion: Through comprehensive analyses, an overview of current research trends and emerging areas of interest regarding the application of nanomaterials in ovarian cancer was illustrated. These findings offered valuable insights into the status and future directions of this dynamic field.

Cationic dextrin nanoparticles for effective intracellular delivery of cytochrome C in cancer therapy

Intracellular protein delivery shows promise as a selective and specific approach to cancer therapy. However, a major challenge is posed by delivering proteins into the target cells. Despite the development of nanoparticle (NP)-based approaches, a versatile and biocompatible delivery system that can deliver active therapeutic cargo into the cytosol while escaping endosome degradation remains elusive. In order to overcome these challenges, a polymeric nanocarrier was prepared using cationic dextrin (CD), a biocompatible and biodegradable polymer, to encapsulate and deliver cytochrome C (Cyt C), a therapeutic protein. The challenge of endosomal escape of the nanoparticles was addressed by co-delivering the synthesized NP construct with chloroquine, which enhances the endosomal escape of the therapeutic protein. No toxicity was observed for both CD NPs and chloroquine at the concentration tested in this study. Spectroscopic investigations confirmed that the delivered protein, Cyt C, was structurally and functionally active. Additionally, the delivered Cyt C was able to induce apoptosis by causing depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane in HeLa cells, as evidenced by flow cytometry and microscopic observations. Our findings demonstrate that an engineered delivery system using CD NPs is a promising platform in nanomedicine for protein delivery applications.

Study of Cytotoxic and Antibacterial Activity of Ag- and Mg-Dual-Doped ZnO Nanoparticles

A non-laborious process for the fabrication of silver and magnesium dual doped zinc oxide nanoparticles (Ag/Mg-ZnO NP) is described. The wurtzite ZnO nano-structures and the dual doped NP were analyzed by PXRD. SEM data showed the hexagonal morphology of our product, while the gathered anti-bacterial outcomes towards Streptococcus mutans bacteria through micro-dilution technic affirmed the enhanced performance of doped NP compared to the native ones. Furthermore, we gauged the toxic impacts of synthesized pure and Ag/Mg-ZnO NP against a breast cancer (MDA-MB-231) cell line through an MTT trial, which highlighted the superiority of the doped when compared to the native nanoparticles. In light of these comparisons, the applicability of Ag/Mg-ZnO NP in dental and medical science is proposed.

Folate conjugated albumin as a targeted nanocarrier for the delivery of fisetin: in silico and in vitro biological studies

Fisetin (FST), a natural flavonoid compound derived from various fruits and vegetables, including apple, strawberry, and onion, demonstrates potential for a wide range of pharmaceutical applications, including potential anticancer properties. However, challenges such as low bioavailability, poor aqueous solubility, and limited permeability restrict the use of FST in the pharmaceutical sector. Nowadays, targeted nanomedicines have garnered attention to overcome limitations associated with phytochemicals, including FST. In the present study, we have designed and successfully prepared folate-targeted FST nanoparticles (FFNPs). Characterization through DLS and FE-SEM revealed the successful preparation of monodisperse (PDI: 0.117), nanoscale-sized (150 nm), and spherical nanoparticles. Physicochemical characterization including FTIR, XRD, DSC, and TGA analysis, confirmed the encapsulation of the FST within the Folic acid (FA) - conjugated nanoparticles (CNPs) and revealed its amorphous nature. Molecular docking analysis revealed the strong binding affinity and specific amino acid interactions involved in the BSA-FST-FA complex, suggesting the potential synergistic effect of FST and FA in enhancing the therapeutic activity of the FFANPs. Cytotoxic assessments by the MTT assay, migration assay, AO-EtBr staining assay, colony formation assay, and cellular uptake study demonstrated enhanced anticancer efficacy, apoptosis induction, and enhanced uptake of FFNPs compared to pure FST. These findings propose prepared FFNPs as a promising targeted drug delivery nanocarrier for effective FST delivery in cancer therapy.

Adsorption and sensor performance of transition metal-decorated zirconium-doped silicon carbide nanotubes for NO2 gas application: a computational insight

Owing to the fact that the detection limit of already existing sensor-devices is below 100% efficiency, the use of 3D nanomaterials as detectors and sensors for various pollutants has attracted interest from researchers in this field. Therefore, the sensing potentials of bare and the impact of Cu-group transition metal (Cu, Ag, Au)-functionalized silicon carbide nanotube (SiCNT) nanostructured surfaces were examined towards the efficient detection of NO2 gas in the atmosphere. All computational calculations were carried out using the density functional theory (DFT) electronic structure method at the B3LYP-D3(BJ)/def2svp level of theory. The mechanistic results showed that the Cu-functionalized silicon carbide nanotube surface possesses the greatest adsorption energies of -3.780 and -2.925 eV, corresponding to the adsorption at the o-site and n-site, respectively. Furthermore, the lowest energy gap of 2.095 eV for the Cu-functionalized surface indicates that adsorption at the o-site is the most stable. The stability of both adsorption sites on the Cu-functionalized surface was attributed to the small ellipticity (ε) values obtained. Sensor mechanisms confirmed that among the surfaces, the Cu-functionalized surface exhibited the best sensing properties, including sensitivity, conductivity, and enhanced adsorption capacity. Hence, the Cu-functionalized SiCNT can be considered a promising choice as a gas sensor material.

The Role of the PTEN Tumor Suppressor Gene and Its Anti-Angiogenic Activity in Melanoma and Other Cancers

Human malignant melanoma and other solid cancers are largely driven by the inactivation of tumor suppressor genes and angiogenesis. Conventional treatments for cancer (surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy) are employed as first-line treatments for solid cancers but are often ineffective as monotherapies due to resistance and toxicity. Thus, targeted therapies, such as bevacizumab, which targets vascular endothelial growth factor, have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as angiogenesis inhibitors. The downregulation of the tumor suppressor, phosphatase tensin homolog (PTEN), occurs in 30-40% of human malignant melanomas, thereby elucidating the importance of the upregulation of PTEN activity. Phosphatase tensin homolog (PTEN) is modulated at the transcriptional, translational, and post-translational levels and regulates key signaling pathways such as the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, which also drive angiogenesis. This review discusses the inhibition of angiogenesis through the upregulation of PTEN and the inhibition of hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1-α) in human malignant melanoma, as no targeted therapies have been approved by the FDA for the inhibition of angiogenesis in human malignant melanoma. The emergence of nanocarrier formulations to enhance the pharmacokinetic profile of phytochemicals that upregulate PTEN activity and improve the upregulation of PTEN has also been discussed.

Chitosan functionalized doxorubicin loaded poly(methacrylamide) based copolymeric nanoparticles for enhanced cellular internalization and in vitro anticancer evaluation

Doxorubicin (Dox), a chemotherapeutic agent, encounters challenges such as a short half-life, dose-dependent toxicity, and low solubility. In this context, the present study involved the fabrication of N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide (HPMA) and N-(3-aminopropyl)methacrylamide (APMA) bearing P(HPMA-s-APMA) copolymeric nanoparticles (P(HPMA-s-APMA) NPs) and their investigation for efficient delivery of Dox. Furthermore, the synthesized nanoparticles (NPs) were coated with chitosan (Cht) to generate positively charged nanoformulations. The prepared formulations were evaluated for particle size, morphology, surface charge analysis, percentage encapsulation efficiency (EE%), and drug release studies. The anticancer activity of Cht-P(HPMA-s-APMA)-Dox NPs was assessed in the HeLa cancer cell line. The prepared P(HPMA-s-APMA)-Dox NPs exhibited an average particle size of 240-250 nm. Chitosan decorated P(HPMA-s-APMA)-Dox NPs displayed a significant increase in particle size, and the zeta potential shifted from negative to positive. The EE% for Cht-P(HPMA-s-APMA)-Dox NPs was calculated to be 68.06 %. The drug release studies revealed a rapid release of drug from Cht-P(HPMA-s-APMA)-Dox NPs at pH 4.8 than pH 7.4, demonstrating the pH-responsiveness of nanoformulation. Furthermore, the cell viability assay and internalization studies revealed that Cht-P(HPMA-s-APMA)-Dox NPs had a high cytotoxic response and significant cellular uptake. Hence, the Cht-P(HPMA-s-APMA)-Dox NPs appeared to be a suitable nanocarrier for effective, and safe chemotherapy.

Synthesis and Bioapplication of Emerging Nanomaterials of Hafnium

A significant amount of progress in nanotechnology has been made due to the development of engineered nanoparticles. The use of metallic nanoparticles for various biomedical applications has been extensively investigated. Biomedical research is highly focused on them because of their inert nature, nanoscale structure, and similar size to many biological molecules. The intrinsic characteristics of these particles, including electronic, optical, physicochemical, and surface plasmon resonance, that can be altered by altering their size, shape, environment, aspect ratio, ease of synthesis, and functionalization properties, have led to numerous biomedical applications. Targeted drug delivery, sensing, photothermal and photodynamic therapy, and imaging are some of these. The promising clinical results of NBTXR3, a high-Z radiosensitizing nanomaterial derived from hafnium, have demonstrated translational potential of this metal. This radiosensitization approach leverages the dependence of energy attenuation on atomic number to enhance energy-matter interactions conducive to radiation therapy. High-Z nanoparticle localization in tumor issue differentially increases the effect of ionizing radiation on cancer cells versus nearby healthy ones and mitigates adverse effects by reducing the overall radiation burden. This principle enables material multifunctionality as contrast agents in X-ray-based imaging. The physiochemical properties of hafnium (Z = 72) are particularly advantageous for these applications. A well-placed K-edge absorption energy and high mass attenuation coefficient compared to elements in human tissue across clinical energy ranges leads to significant attenuation. Chemical reactivity allows for variety in nanoparticle synthesis, composition, and functionalization. Nanoparticles such as hafnium oxide exhibit excellent biocompatibility due to physiochemical inertness prior to incidence with ionizing radiation. Additionally, the optical and electronic properties are applicable in biosensing, optical component coatings, and semiconductors. The wide interest has prompted extensive research in design and synthesis to facilitate property fine-tuning. This review summarizes synthetic methods for hafnium-based nanomaterials and applications in therapy, imaging, and biosensing with a mechanistic focus. A discussion and future perspective section highlights clinical progress and elaborates on current challenges. By focusing on factors impacting applicational effectiveness and examining limitations this review aims to support researchers and expedite clinical translation of future hafnium-based nanomedicine.

Advancements in Macrophage-Targeted Drug Delivery for Effective Disease Management

Macrophages play a crucial role in tissue homeostasis and the innate immune system. They perform essential functions such as presenting antigens, regulating cytokines, and responding to inflammation. However, in diseases like cancer, cardiovascular disorders, and autoimmune conditions, macrophages undergo aberrant polarization, which disrupts tissue regulation and impairs their normal behavior. To address these challenges, there has been growing interest in developing customized targeted drug delivery systems specifically designed for macrophage-related functions in different anatomical locations. Nanomedicine, utilizing nanoscale drug systems, offers numerous advantages including improved stability, enhanced pharmacokinetics, controlled release kinetics, and precise temporal drug delivery. These advantages hold significant promise in achieving heightened therapeutic efficacy, specificity, and reduced side effects in drug delivery and treatment approaches. This review aims to explore the roles of macrophages in major diseases and present an overview of current strategies employed in targeted drug delivery to macrophages. Additionally, this article critically evaluates the design of macrophage-targeted delivery systems, highlighting limitations and discussing prospects in this rapidly evolving field. By assessing the strengths and weaknesses of existing approaches, we can identify areas for improvement and refinement in macrophage-targeted drug delivery.

Evolving approaches in glioma treatment: harnessing the potential of copper metabolism modulation

The key properties and high versatility of metal nanoparticles have shed new perspectives on cancer therapy, with copper nanoparticles gaining great interest because of the ability to couple the intrinsic properties of metal nanoparticles with the biological activities of copper ions in cancer cells. Copper, indeed, is a cofactor involved in different metabolic pathways of many physiological and pathological processes. Literature data report on the use of copper in preclinical protocols for cancer treatment based on chemo-, photothermal-, or copper chelating-therapies. Copper nanoparticles exhibit anticancer activity via multiple routes, mainly involving the targeting of mitochondria, the modulation of oxidative stress, the induction of apoptosis and autophagy, and the modulation of immune response. Moreover, compared to other metal nanoparticles (e.g. gold, silver, palladium, and platinum), copper nanoparticles are rapidly cleared from organs with low systemic toxicity and benefit from the copper's low cost and wide availability. Within this review, we aim to explore the impact of copper in cancer research, focusing on glioma, the most common primary brain tumour. Glioma accounts for about 80% of all malignant brain tumours and shows a poor prognosis with the five-year survival rate being less than 5%. After introducing the glioma pathogenesis and the limitation of current therapeutic strategies, we will discuss the potential impact of copper therapy and present the key results of the most relevant literature to establish a reliable foundation for future development of copper-based approaches.

Light-Assisted "Nano-Neutrophils" with High Drug Loading for Targeted Cancer Therapy

Background

Nanomedicine presents a promising alternative for cancer treatment owing to its outstanding features. However, the therapeutic outcome is still severely compromised by low tumor targeting, loading efficiency, and non-specific drug release.

Methods

Light-assisted "nano-neutrophils (NMPC-NPs)", featuring high drug loading, self-amplified tumor targeting, and light-triggered specific drug release, were developed. NMPC-NPs were composed of neutrophil membrane-camouflaged PLGA nanoparticles (NPs) loaded with a hypoxia-responsive, quinone-modified PTX dimeric prodrug (hQ-PTX2) and photosensitizer (Ce6).

Results

hQ-PTX2 significantly enhanced the drug loading of NPs by preventing intermolecular π-π interactions, and neutrophil membrane coating imparted the biological characteristics of neutrophils to NMPC-NPs, thus improving the stability and inflammation-targeting ability of NMPC-NPs. Under light irradiation, extensive NMPC-NPs were recruited to tumor sites based on photodynamic therapy (PDT)-amplified intratumoral inflammatory signals for targeted drug delivery to inflammatory tumors. Besides, PDT could effectively eliminate tumor cells via reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, while the PDT-aggravated hypoxic environment accelerated hQ-PTX2 degradation to realize the specific release of PTX, thus synergistically combining chemotherapy and PDT to suppress tumor growth and metastasis with minimal adverse effects.

Conclusion

This nanoplatform provides a prospective and effective avenue toward enhanced tumor-targeted delivery and synergistic cancer therapy.

Novel Nanotherapeutic Systems Based on PEGylated Squalene Micelles for Enhanced In Vitro Activity of Methotrexate and Cytarabine

Nanomedicine has garnered significant attention due to the advantages it offers in the treatment of cancer-related disorders, some of the deadliest diseases affecting human lives. Conventional medication formulations often encounter issues of instability or insolubility in biological environments, resulting in low bioavailability. Nanocarriers play a crucial role in transporting and safeguarding drugs at specific sites of action, enabling gradual release under particular conditions. This study focuses on methotrexate (MTx) and cytarabine (Cyt), essential antitumoral drugs, loaded into PEGylated squalene micellar structures to enhance therapeutic effectiveness and minimize drawbacks. The micelles were prepared using ultrasound-assisted methods in both water and phosphate buffer saline solutions. Evaluation of drug-loaded micelles encompassed parameters such as particle size, colloidal stability, surface charge, morphology, encapsulation efficiency, drug loading capacity, and in vitro release profiles under simulated physiological and tumoral conditions. In vitro cell inhibition studies conducted on MCF-7 and HeLa cell lines demonstrated higher antitumoral activity for the drug-encapsulated micelles compared to free drugs. The encapsulation effectively addressed the burst effect, providing sustained release for at least 48 h while enhancing the drug's protection under physiological conditions.

Can Nitric Oxide-Based Therapy Be Improved for the Treatment of Cancers? A Perspective

Since the early observations that nitric oxide (•NO) at high concentrations is cytotoxic to cancer cells and that it may play an important role in the treatment of human cancers, a significant number of compounds (NO-donors) have been prepared to deliver •NO to tumors. •NO also sensitizes various clinically active anticancer drugs and has been shown to induce the reversal of multi-drug resistance in tumor cells expressing ATP-binding cassette-transporter proteins. For the successful treatment of cancers, •NO needs to be delivered precisely to tumors, and its adverse toxicity must be limited. Like other chemotherapeutics, the precise delivery of drugs has been a problem and various attempts have been made, such as the encapsulation of drugs in lipid polymers, to overcome this. This prospective study examines the use of various strategies for delivering •NO (using NO-donors) for the treatment of cancers. Finding and utilizing such a delivery system is an important step in delivering cytotoxic concentrations of •NO to tumors without adverse reactions, leading to a successful clinical outcome for patient management.

Nanoparticles in Medicine: Current Status in Cancer Treatment

Cancer is still a leading cause of deaths worldwide, especially due to those cases diagnosed at late stages with metastases that are still considered untreatable and are managed in such a way that a lengthy chronic state is achieved. Nanotechnology has been acknowledged as one possible solution to improve existing cancer treatments, but also as an innovative approach to developing new therapeutic solutions that will lower systemic toxicity and increase targeted action on tumors and metastatic tumor cells. In particular, the nanoparticles studied in the context of cancer treatment include organic and inorganic particles whose role may often be expanded into diagnostic applications. Some of the best studied nanoparticles include metallic gold and silver nanoparticles, quantum dots, polymeric nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes and graphene, with diverse mechanisms of action such as, for example, the increased induction of reactive oxygen species, increased cellular uptake and functionalization properties for improved targeted delivery. Recently, novel nanoparticles for improved cancer cell targeting also include nanobubbles, which have already demonstrated increased localization of anticancer molecules in tumor tissues. In this review, we will accordingly present and discuss state-of-the-art nanoparticles and nano-formulations for cancer treatment and limitations for their application in a clinical setting.

Super-resolution imaging of antibody-conjugated biodegradable periodic mesoporous organosilica nanoparticles for targeted chemotherapy of prostate cancer

Biodegradable periodic mesoporous organosilica nanoparticles (nanoPMOs) are widely used as responsive drug delivery platforms for targeted chemotherapy of cancer. However, the evaluation of their properties such as surface functionality and biodegradability is still challenging, which has a significant impact on the efficiency of chemotherapy. In this study, we have applied direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM), a single-molecule super-resolution microscopy technique, to quantify the degradation of nanoPMOs triggered by glutathione and the multivalency of antibody-conjugated nanoPMOs. Subsequently, the effect of these properties on cancer cell targeting, drug loading and release capability, and anticancer activity is also studied. Due to the higher spatial resolution at the nanoscale, dSTORM imaging is able to reveal the structural properties (i.e., size and shape) of fluorescent and biodegradable nanoPMOs. The quantification of nanoPMOs' biodegradation using dSTORM imaging demonstrates their excellent structure-dependent degradation behavior at a higher glutathione concentration. The surface functionality of anti-M6PR antibody-conjugated nanoPMOs as quantified by dSTORM imaging plays a key role in prostate cancer cell labeling: oriented antibody is more effective than random ones, while high multivalency is also effective. The higher biodegradability and cancer cell-targeting properties of nanorods conjugated with oriented antibody (EAB4H) effectively deliver the anticancer drug doxorubicin to cancer cells, exhibiting potent anticancer effects.

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems targeting cancer cell surfaces

Traditional cancer chemotherapy easily produces serious toxic and side effects due to the lack of specific selection of tumor cells, which restricts its curative effect. Targeted delivery can increase the concentration of drugs in the target site and reduce their toxic and side effects on normal tissues and cells. Biocompatible and surface-modifiable nanocarriers are novel drug delivery systems, which are used to specifically target tumor sites in a controllable way. One of the effective ways to design effective targeting nanocarriers is to decorate with functional ligands, which can bind to specific receptors overexpressed on the surfaces of cancer cells. Various functional ligands, including transferrin, folic acid, polypeptide and hyaluronic acid, have been widely explored to develop tumor-selective drug delivery systems. This review focuses on the research progress of various receptors overexpressed on the surfaces of cancer cells and different nano-delivery systems of anticancer drugs targeted on the surfaces of cancer cells. We believe that through continuous research and development, actively targeted cancer nano-drugs will make a breakthrough and become an indispensable platform for accurate cancer treatment.

Amelioration of Cancer Employing Chitosan, Its Derivatives, and Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles: Recent Updates

The limitations associated with the conventional treatment of cancer have necessitated the design and development of novel drug delivery systems based mainly on nanotechnology. These novel drug delivery systems include various kinds of nanoparticles, such as polymeric nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, hydrogels, and polymeric micelles. Among the various kinds of novel drug delivery systems, chitosan-based nanoparticles have attracted the attention of researchers to treat cancer. Chitosan is a polycationic polymer generated from chitin with various characteristics such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity, and mucoadhesiveness, making it an ideal polymer to fabricate drug delivery systems. However, chitosan is poorly soluble in water and soluble in acidic aqueous solutions. Furthermore, owing to the presence of reactive amino groups, chitosan can be chemically modified to improve its physiochemical properties. Chitosan and its modified derivatives can be employed to fabricate nanoparticles, which are used most frequently in the pharmaceutical sector due to their possession of various characteristics such as nanosize, appropriate pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties, non-immunogenicity, improved stability, and improved drug loading capacity. Furthermore, it is capable of delivering nucleic acids, chemotherapeutic medicines, and bioactives using modified chitosan. Chitosan and its modified derivative-based nanoparticles can be targeted to specific cancer sites via active and passive mechanisms. Based on chitosan drug delivery systems, many anticancer drugs now have better effectiveness, potency, cytotoxicity, or biocompatibility. The characteristics of chitosan and its chemically tailored derivatives, as well as their use in cancer therapy, will be examined in this review.

Recent Advances in Nanomaterials-Based Targeted Drug Delivery for Preclinical Cancer Diagnosis and Therapeutics

Nano-oncology is a branch of biomedical research and engineering that focuses on using nanotechnology in cancer diagnosis and treatment. Nanomaterials are extensively employed in the field of oncology because of their minute size and ultra-specificity. A wide range of nanocarriers, such as dendrimers, micelles, PEGylated liposomes, and polymeric nanoparticles are used to facilitate the efficient transport of anti-cancer drugs at the target tumor site. Real-time labeling and monitoring of cancer cells using quantum dots is essential for determining the level of therapy needed for treatment. The drug is targeted to the tumor site either by passive or active means. Passive targeting makes use of the tumor microenvironment and enhanced permeability and retention effect, while active targeting involves the use of ligand-coated nanoparticles. Nanotechnology is being used to diagnose the early stage of cancer by detecting cancer-specific biomarkers using tumor imaging. The implication of nanotechnology in cancer therapy employs photoinduced nanosensitizers, reverse multidrug resistance, and enabling efficient delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 and RNA molecules for therapeutic applications. However, despite recent advancements in nano-oncology, there is a need to delve deeper into the domain of designing and applying nanoparticles for improved cancer diagnostics.

Commentary: Nanoparticle-Based Chemotherapy Delivery and Potential Health Risks: Prospects for Effective Clinical Translation

With recent advancements, chemotherapy is one of the most prevalent regimens for cancer treatment. However, the heterogeneity of tumor biology and healthy cell-damaging potential of chemotherapy remain challenges. As a solution, nanoparticle-based delivery is advancing. Besides its promising potential, effective clinical translation and commercialization of nanoparticle-based chemotherapy should get attention to ensure the absence of potential health risks. Specifically, the permeability potential of nanoparticles across biological barriers can lead to drug accumulation in vital organs and produce harm. Therefore, for effective design and clinical application of next-generation nanomedicine, pharmaceutical formulation scientists should conduct intensive studies. They involve studying the properties of drug-loaded nanoparticles in the microenvironment of the target site and the impact of interspecies differences using quantitative and mechanistic studies. It creates a comprehensive understanding of the specific properties of nanoparticles and their interaction potential with biological systems. This commentary justifies the requirement for comprehensive knowledge of the above-mentioned criteria and tests for the success of nanomedicine for chemotherapy delivery.