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El-Sayed MH, Elsayed DA, Gomaa AERF. Nocardiopsis synnemataformans NBRM9, an extremophilic actinomycete producing extremozyme cellulase, using lignocellulosic agro-wastes and its biotechnological applications. AIMS Microbiol 2024; 10:187-219. [PMID: 38525045 PMCID: PMC10955166 DOI: 10.3934/microbiol.2024010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Actinomycetes are an attractive source of lignocellulose-degrading enzymes. The search for actinomycetes producing extremozyme cellulase using cheap lignocellulosic waste remains a priority goal of enzyme research. In this context, the extremophilic actinomycete NBRM9 showed promising cellulolytic activity in solid and liquid assays. This actinomycete was identified as Nocardiopsis synnemataformans based on its phenotypic characteristics alongside phylogenetic analyses of 16S rRNA gene sequencing (OQ380604.1). Using bean straw as the best agro-waste, the production of cellulase from this strain was statistically optimized using a response surface methodology, with the maximum activity (13.20 U/mL) achieved at an incubation temperature of 40 °C, a pH of 9, an incubation time of 7 days, and a 2% substrate concentration. The partially purified cellulase (PPC) showed promising activity and stability over a wide range of temperatures (20-90 °C), pH values (3-11), and NaCl concentrations (1-19%), with optimal activity at 50 °C, pH 9.0, and 10% salinity. Under these conditions, the enzyme retained >95% of its activity, thus indicating its extremozyme nature. The kinetics of cellulase showed that it has a Vmax of 20.19 ± 1.88 U/mL and a Km of 0.25 ± 0.07 mM. The immobilized PPC had a relative activity of 69.58 ± 0.13%. In the in vitro microtiter assay, the PPC was found to have a concentration-dependent anti-biofilm activity (up to 85.15 ± 1.60%). Additionally, the fermentative conversion of the hydrolyzed bean straw by Saccharomyces cerevisiae (KM504287.1) amounted to 65.80 ± 0.52% of the theoretical ethanol yield. Overall, for the first time, the present work reports the production of extremozymatic (thermo, alkali-, and halo-stable) cellulase from N. synnemataformans NBRM9. Therefore, this strain is recommended for use as a biotool in many lignocellulosic-based applications operating under harsh conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed H. El-Sayed
- Department of Biology, College of Science and Arts, Northern Border University, Arar, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11884, Egypt
| | - Doaa A. Elsayed
- Department of Biology, College of Science and Arts, Northern Border University, Arar, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abd El-Rahman F. Gomaa
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Assiut Branch, Assiut 71524, Egypt
- The Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Medicinal Plants of Jiangsu Province, School of Life Science, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, 221116, PR China
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Yousef NMH, Mawad AMM. Characterization of thermo/halo stable cellulase produced from halophilic Virgibacillus salarius BM-02 using non-pretreated biomass. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 39:22. [PMID: 36422734 PMCID: PMC9691493 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-022-03446-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The production of extremozymes from halophilic bacteria has increased significantly due to their stability and efficiency in catalyzing a reaction, as well as their capacity to display optimum activity at various salt concentrations. In the current study, the halophilic bacterium Virgibacillus salarius strain BM-02 could utilize many non-pretreated substrates including cellulose, corn stover, sugarcane bagasse and wheat bran as a sole carbon source. However, wheat bran was the best substrate for achieving optimum saccharification yield (90.1%). The partially purified cellulase was active and stable at a wide range of pH (5-8) with residual activities > 58%. Moreover, it was stable at 5-12% of NaCl. Metal ions have a variable impact on the activity of partially purified cellulase however, Fe+3 exhibited the highest increase in the cellulase activity. The enzyme exhibited a thermal stability at 40, 50 and 60 °C with half-lives of 1049.50, 168.14 and 163.5 min, respectively. The value of Vmax was 22.27 U/mL while Km was 2.1 mM. The activation energy of denaturation Ed 69.81 kJ/mol, the enthalpy values (ΔHd) were positive, and the entropy values (ΔS) were negative. Therefore, V. Salarius is recommended as a novel promising halophilic extremozyme producer and agricultural waste remover in the bio-industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naeima M. H. Yousef
- grid.252487.e0000 0000 8632 679XBotany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Assiut University, Assiut, 71516 Egypt
| | - Asmaa M. M. Mawad
- grid.252487.e0000 0000 8632 679XBotany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Assiut University, Assiut, 71516 Egypt
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Gabriel R, Mueller R, Floerl L, Hopson C, Harth S, Schuerg T, Fleissner A, Singer SW. CAZymes from the thermophilic fungus Thermoascus aurantiacus are induced by C5 and C6 sugars. Biotechnol Biofuels 2021; 14:169. [PMID: 34384463 PMCID: PMC8359064 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-021-02018-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Filamentous fungi are excellent lignocellulose degraders, which they achieve through producing carbohydrate active enzymes (CAZymes). CAZyme production is highly orchestrated and gene expression analysis has greatly expanded understanding of this important biotechnological process. The thermophilic fungus Thermoascus aurantiacus secretes highly active thermostable enzymes that enable saccharifications at higher temperatures; however, the genome-wide measurements of gene expression in response to CAZyme induction are not understood. RESULTS A fed-batch system with plant biomass-derived sugars D-xylose, L-arabinose and cellobiose established that these sugars induce CAZyme expression in T. aurantiacus. The C5 sugars induced both cellulases and hemicellulases, while cellobiose specifically induced cellulases. A minimal medium formulation was developed to enable gene expression studies of T. aurantiacus with these inducers. It was found that d-xylose and L-arabinose strongly induced a wide variety of CAZymes, auxiliary activity (AA) enzymes and carbohydrate esterases (CEs), while cellobiose facilitated lower expression of mostly cellulase genes. Furthermore, putative orthologues of different unfolded protein response genes were up-regulated during the C5 sugar feeding together with genes in the C5 sugar assimilation pathways. CONCLUSION This work has identified two additional CAZyme inducers for T. aurantiacus, L-arabinose and cellobiose, along with D-xylose. A combination of biochemical assays and RNA-seq measurements established that C5 sugars induce a suite of cellulases and hemicellulases, providing paths to produce broad spectrum thermotolerant enzymatic mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphael Gabriel
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 9720, USA
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, 94608, USA
- Institut Für Genetik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr. 7, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Rebecca Mueller
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 9720, USA
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, 94608, USA
- Institut Für Genetik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr. 7, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Lena Floerl
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 9720, USA
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, 94608, USA
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Muthgasse 18, 1190, Vienna, Austria
- Laboratory of Food Systems Biotechnology, Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Cynthia Hopson
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 9720, USA
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, 94608, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials, Faculty of Chemistry, Complutense University of Madrid, Av. Complutense s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Simon Harth
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 9720, USA
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, 94608, USA
- Frankfurt Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Timo Schuerg
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 9720, USA
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, 94608, USA
| | - Andre Fleissner
- Institut Für Genetik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr. 7, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany
- Braunschweig Integrated Centre of Systems Biology (BRICS), Rebenring 56, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Steven W Singer
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 9720, USA.
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA, 94608, USA.
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Regmi S, Choi YS, Kim YK, Khan MM, Lee SH, Cho SS, Jin YY, Lee DY, Yoo JC, Suh JW. Endoglucanase Produced by Bacillus subtilis Strain CBS31: Biochemical Characterization, Thermodynamic Study, Enzymatic Hydrolysis, and Bio-industrial Applications. BIOTECHNOL BIOPROC E 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s12257-019-0338-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Regmi S, Choi YS, Kim YK, Khan MM, Lee SH, Choi YH, Cho SS, Jin YY, Yoo JC, Suh JW. Industrial attributes of β-glucanase produced by Bacillus sp. CSB55 and its potential application as bio-industrial catalyst. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 2020; 43:249-59. [PMID: 31555900 DOI: 10.1007/s00449-019-02221-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The β-glucanase produced from Bacillus sp. CSB55 not only depicts the potent industrial characteristics but also relates as bio-industrial catalyst supporting the spontaneous formation of the products, high hydrolytic efficiency, and feasibility of the enzymatic reaction. A homogeneous β-glucanase (GluB55) was purified via various purification processes resulting in 11.69% yield and 14.24-fold purity. Biochemical characterization of the purified enzyme revealed the molecular mass of approximately 40 kDa, which was verified by zymography. The optimum activity of GluB55 was determined at pH 7.2 and 55 °C. GluB55 could highly hydrolyze carboxymethylcellulose and was stable over a wide range of pH, retaining more than 70% residual activity at pH 5.8-11.0 and carried 100% thermostability as high as 60 °C. In addition, it showed 68% residual activity at 70 °C. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of GluB55 was Ala-Asn-Pro-Glu-Leu-Val-Asn-X-Gln-Ala-X-X-Ala-X-Gln-Gly. The enzyme activity was stimulated by Co2+ (158.6%), Zn2+ (211.1%), Mn2+ (264.4%), and Ba2+ (211.4%). Enzyme kinetics showed Km and Vmax values of 0.022 mg mL-1 and 994.56 ± 3.72 U mg-1, respectively. Q10 was calculated to be 1.12. ∆H, ∆G, and ∆S were low revealing that the formation of the transition phase and conversion to the product is very well organized. The lower the free energy change (∆G), the more feasible is the reaction.
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Beygmoradi A, Homaei A. Marine microbes as a valuable resource for brand new industrial biocatalysts. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 2017; 11:131-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcab.2017.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Krishnaraj RN, Samanta D, Kumar A, Sani R. Bioprospecting of Thermostable Cellulolytic Enzymes through Modeling and Virtual Screening Method. Can J Biotech 2017. [DOI: 10.24870/cjb.2017-000105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Morrison JM, Elshahed MS, Youssef N. A multifunctional GH39 glycoside hydrolase from the anaerobic gut fungus Orpinomyces sp. strain C1A. PeerJ 2016; 4:e2289. [PMID: 27547582 PMCID: PMC4975031 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background. The anaerobic gut fungi (phylum Neocallimastigomycota) represent a promising source of novel lignocellulolytic enzymes. Here, we report on the cloning, expression, and characterization of a glycoside hydrolase family 39 (GH39) enzyme (Bgxg1) that is highly transcribed by the anaerobic fungus Orpinomycessp. strain C1A under different growth conditions. This represents the first study of a GH39-family enzyme from the anaerobic fungi. Methods. Using enzyme activity assays, we performed a biochemical characterization of Bgxg1 on a variety of substrates over a wide range of pH and temperature values to identify the optimal enzyme conditions and the specificity of the enzyme. In addition, substrate competition studies and comparative modeling efforts were completed. Results. Contrary to the narrow range of activities (β-xylosidase or α-L-iduronidase) observed in previously characterized GH39 enzymes, Bgxg1 is unique in that it is multifunctional, exhibiting strong β-xylosidase, β-glucosidase, β-galactosidase activities (11.5 ± 1.2, 73.4 ± 7.15, and 54.6 ± 2.26 U/mg, respectively) and a weak xylanase activity (10.8 ± 1.25 U/mg), as compared to previously characterized enzymes. Further, Bgxg1 possesses extremely high affinity (as evident by the lowest K m values), compared to all previously characterized β-glucosidases, β-galactosidases, and xylanases. Physiological characterization revealed that Bgxg1 is active over a wide range of pH (3-8, optimum 6) and temperatures (25-60 °C, optimum 39 °C), and possesses excellent temperature and thermal stability. Substrate competition assays suggest that all observed activities occur at a single active site. Using comparative modeling and bioinformatics approaches, we putatively identified ten amino acid differences between Bgxg1 and previously biochemically characterized GH39 β-xylosidases that we speculate could impact active site architecture, size, charge, and/or polarity. Discussion. Collectively, the unique capabilities and multi-functionality of Bgxg1 render it an excellent candidate for inclusion in enzyme cocktails mediating cellulose and hemicellulose saccharification from lignocellulosic biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica M Morrison
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University , Stillwater , OK , USA
| | - Mostafa S Elshahed
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University , Stillwater , OK , USA
| | - Noha Youssef
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University , Stillwater , OK , USA
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Abstract
An Endo-cellulase was purified to homogeneity using ammonium sulfate precipitation, ion exchange and size exclusion chromatography from newly isolated strain of Thermoascus aurantiacus RBB-1. The recovery and purification fold were 13.3% and 6.6, respectively, after size exclusion chromatography. The purified cellulase has a molecular mass (M) of 35 kDa. Optimum temperature for the enzyme was found to be 70 °C and stability was upto 80 °C for 1 h. Along with higher stability at 80 °C, enzyme showed half lives of 192 h and 144 h at 50 and 70 °C respectively. The purified cellulase was optimally active at pH 4.0 and was stable over a broad pH range of 3.0–7.0. The enzyme purified showed apparent Km and Vmax values of 37 mg/ml and 82.6 U/min/mg protein respectively with higher salt tolerance of 10% for 1 h.
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Hartmann EM, Durighello E, Pible O, Nogales B, Beltrametti F, Bosch R, Christie-Oleza JA, Armengaud J. Proteomics meets blue biotechnology: a wealth of novelties and opportunities. Mar Genomics 2014; 17:35-42. [PMID: 24780860 DOI: 10.1016/j.margen.2014.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 04/11/2014] [Accepted: 04/12/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Blue biotechnology, in which aquatic environments provide the inspiration for various products such as food additives, aquaculture, biosensors, green chemistry, bioenergy, and pharmaceuticals, holds enormous promise. Large-scale efforts to sequence aquatic genomes and metagenomes, as well as campaigns to isolate new organisms and culture-based screenings, are helping to push the boundaries of known organisms. Mass spectrometry-based proteomics can complement 16S gene sequencing in the effort to discover new organisms of potential relevance to blue biotechnology by facilitating the rapid screening of microbial isolates and by providing in depth profiles of the proteomes and metaproteomes of marine organisms, both model cultivable isolates and, more recently, exotic non-cultivable species and communities. Proteomics has already contributed to blue biotechnology by identifying aquatic proteins with potential applications to food fermentation, the textile industry, and biomedical drug development. In this review, we discuss historical developments in blue biotechnology, the current limitations to the known marine biosphere, and the ways in which mass spectrometry can expand that knowledge. We further speculate about directions that research in blue biotechnology will take given current and near-future technological advancements in mass spectrometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica M Hartmann
- CEA, DSV, IBEB, Lab Biochim System Perturb, Bagnols-sur-Cèze, F-30207, France
| | - Emie Durighello
- CEA, DSV, IBEB, Lab Biochim System Perturb, Bagnols-sur-Cèze, F-30207, France
| | - Olivier Pible
- CEA, DSV, IBEB, Lab Biochim System Perturb, Bagnols-sur-Cèze, F-30207, France
| | - Balbina Nogales
- Microbiologia, Departament de Biologia, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
| | | | - Rafael Bosch
- Microbiologia, Departament de Biologia, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
| | - Joseph A Christie-Oleza
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry CV47AL, United Kingdom
| | - Jean Armengaud
- CEA, DSV, IBEB, Lab Biochim System Perturb, Bagnols-sur-Cèze, F-30207, France.
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Teugjas H, Väljamäe P. Selecting β-glucosidases to support cellulases in cellulose saccharification. Biotechnol Biofuels 2013; 6:105. [PMID: 23883540 PMCID: PMC3726394 DOI: 10.1186/1754-6834-6-105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Enzyme end-product inhibition is a major challenge in the hydrolysis of lignocellulose at a high dry matter consistency. β-glucosidases (BGs) hydrolyze cellobiose into two molecules of glucose, thereby relieving the product inhibition of cellobiohydrolases (CBHs). However, BG inhibition by glucose will eventually lead to the accumulation of cellobiose and the inhibition of CBHs. Therefore, the kinetic properties of candidate BGs must meet the requirements determined by both the kinetic properties of CBHs and the set-up of the hydrolysis process. RESULTS The kinetics of cellobiose hydrolysis and glucose inhibition of thermostable BGs from Acremonium thermophilum (AtBG3) and Thermoascus aurantiacus (TaBG3) was studied and compared to Aspergillus sp. BG purified from Novozyme®188 (N188BG). The most efficient cellobiose hydrolysis was achieved with TaBG3, followed by AtBG3 and N188BG, whereas the enzyme most sensitive to glucose inhibition was AtBG3, followed by TaBG3 and N188BG. The use of higher temperatures had an advantage in both increasing the catalytic efficiency and relieving the product inhibition of the enzymes. Our data, together with data from a literature survey, revealed a trade-off between the strength of glucose inhibition and the affinity for cellobiose; therefore, glucose-tolerant BGs tend to have low specificity constants for cellobiose hydrolysis. However, although a high specificity constant is always an advantage, in separate hydrolysis and fermentation, the priority may be given to a higher tolerance to glucose inhibition. CONCLUSIONS The specificity constant for cellobiose hydrolysis and the inhibition constant for glucose are the most important kinetic parameters in selecting BGs to support cellulases in cellulose hydrolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hele Teugjas
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Riia 23b – 202, 51010, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Priit Väljamäe
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Riia 23b – 202, 51010, Tartu, Estonia
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Sadhu S, Saha P, Sen SK, Mayilraj S, Maiti TK. Production, purification and characterization of a novel thermotolerant endoglucanase (CMCase) from Bacillus strain isolated from cow dung. Springerplus 2013; 2:10. [PMID: 23519129 PMCID: PMC3600122 DOI: 10.1186/2193-1801-2-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Accepted: 01/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
In an attempt to screen out cellulase producing bacteria from herbivorous animal fecal matter it was possible to isolate a potent bacterium from cow dung. The bacterium was identified as Bacillus sp. using 16S rDNA based molecular phylogenetic approach. The effect of different agricultural wastes, paper wastes and carboxymethyl cellulose on endoglucanase production was tested and was found to produce maximally at 8% carboxymethyl cellulose. The endoglucanase was precipitated by ammonium sulfate saturation and purified by DEAE- Sepharose column. The purification was achieved 8.5 fold from the crude extract with a yield of 68.1%. The molecular weight of the protein was determined to be 97 kDa by SDS-PAGE. The enzymatic activity was moderately reduced by detergents (SDS, Tween-80), metal ions (MnCl2, ZnCl2) and EDTA. The endoglucanase was stable between pH 5.0 – 9.0 and temperature between 20−70°C with optimal activity at pH 7.0 and temperature 50°C. The apparent Km value of the enzyme for the substrate carboxymethyl cellulose was recorded to be 0.25 mg/ml. The endoglucanase was stable in the presence of commercial detergents such as Ariel, Surf Excel and Tide, indicated might be of potential applications in detergent industry. The enzyme from this strain could also be applied in bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass into fermentable sugars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangrila Sadhu
- Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Botany, Burdwan University, Burdwan, 713104 WB India
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Shyamala S, Ravikumar S, Vikramathithan J, Srikumar K. Isolation, Purification, and Characterization of Two Thermostable Endo-1,4-β-d-glucanase Forms from Opuntia vulgaris. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2011; 165:1597-1610. [DOI: 10.1007/s12010-011-9380-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Zhang C, Kim SK. Research and application of marine microbial enzymes: status and prospects. Mar Drugs 2010; 8:1920-34. [PMID: 20631875 PMCID: PMC2901830 DOI: 10.3390/md8061920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2010] [Revised: 06/15/2010] [Accepted: 06/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Over billions of years, the ocean has been regarded as the origin of life on Earth. The ocean includes the largest range of habitats, hosting the most life-forms. Competition amongst microorganisms for space and nutrients in the marine environment is a powerful selective force, which has led to evolution. The evolution prompted the marine microorganisms to generate multifarious enzyme systems to adapt to the complicated marine environments. Therefore, marine microbial enzymes can offer novel biocatalysts with extraordinary properties. This review deals with the research and development work investigating the occurrence and bioprocessing of marine microbial enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Pukyong National University, Busan, 608-737, Korea
- Key laboratory of Molecular Enzymology and Enzyme Engineering of Ministry Education, Jilin University, Changchun, 130023, China; E-Mail:
| | - Se-Kwon Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Pukyong National University, Busan, 608-737, Korea
- Marine Bioprocess Research Center, Pukyong National University, Busan, 608-737, Korea
- *Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +82-51-629-7097; Fax: +82 -51-629-7099
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Mamma D, Hatzinikolaou D, Kekos D, Stamatis H, Kalogeris E. Adsorption of major endoglucanase from Thermoascus aurantiacus on cellulosic substrates. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2009; 25:781-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s11274-008-9949-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Thongekkaew J, Ikeda H, Masaki K, Iefuji H. An acidic and thermostable carboxymethyl cellulase from the yeast Cryptococcus sp. S-2: purification, characterization and improvement of its recombinant enzyme production by high cell-density fermentation of Pichia pastoris. Protein Expr Purif 2008; 60:140-6. [PMID: 18479937 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2008.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2007] [Revised: 03/11/2008] [Accepted: 03/18/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The extracellular carboxymethyl cellulase (CSCMCase) from the yeast, Cryptococcus sp. S-2, was produced when grown on cellobiose. It was purified to homogeneity from the supernatant by ultrafiltration, DEAE-5PW anion exchange column and TSK-Gel G3000SW gel filtration. The purified enzyme was monomeric protein with molecular mass of approximately 34kDa. The optimum temperature and pH for the action of the enzyme were at 40-50 degrees C and 3.5, respectively. It was stable at pH range of 5.5-7.5 and retained approximately 50% of its maximum activity after incubating at 90 degrees C for 1h. Moreover, it could able to hydrolyze carboxymethyl cellulose sodium salt higher than insoluble cellulose substrate such as Avicel, SIGMACELL and CM cellulose. Due to its action at acidic pH and moderately stable at high temperature, the gene encoding carboxymethyl cellulase (CSCMCase) was isolated and improved the enzyme yield by high cell-density fermentation of Pichia pastoris. The CSCMCase cDNA contains 1023 nucleotides and encodes a 341-amino acid. It was successfully expressed under the control of alcohol oxidase I promoter using methanol induction of P. pastoris fermentation in a 2L ABLE bioreactor. The production of the recombinant carboxymethyl cellulases was higher than that from Cryptococcus sp. S-2 of 657-fold (2.75 and 4.2 x 10(-3) mg protein L(-1), respectively) indicating that the leader sequence of CSCMCase has been recognized and processed as efficiently by P. pastoris. Furthermore, the recombinant enzyme was purified in two-step of ultrafiltration and hydrophobic interaction chromatography which would be much more convenient for large-scale purification for successful industrial application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jantaporn Thongekkaew
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Ubon-Rajathanee University, Warinchumrab, Ubon-Ratchathani 34190, Thailand.
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Li DC, Lu M, Li YL, Lu J. Purification and characterization of an endocellulase from the thermophilic fungus Chaetomium thermophilum CT2. Enzyme Microb Technol 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0141-0229(03)00245-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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20
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de Palma-Fernandez ER, Gomes E, da Silva R. Purification and characterization of two beta-glucosidases from the thermophilic fungus Thermoascus aurantiacus. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2002; 47:685-90. [PMID: 12630320 DOI: 10.1007/bf02818672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
beta-Glucosidase from the fungus Thermoascus aurantiacus grown on semi-solid fermentation medium (using ground corncob as substrate) was partially purified in 5 steps--ultrafiltration, ethanol precipitation, gel filtration and 2 anion exchange chromatography runs, and characterized. After the first anion exchange chromatography, beta-glucosidase activity was eluted in 3 peaks (Gl-1, Gl-2, Gl-3). Only the Gl-2 and Gl-3 fractions were adsorbed on the gel matrix. Gl-2 and Gl-3 exhibited optimum pH at 4.5 and 4.0, respectively. The temperature optimum of both glucosidases was at 75-80 degrees C. The pH stability of Gl-2 (4.0-9.0) was higher than Gl-3 (5.5-8.5); both enzyme activities showed similar patterns of thermostability. Under conditions of denaturing gel chromatography the molar mass of Gl-2 and Gl-3 was 175 and 157 kDa, respectively. Using 4-nitrophenyl beta-D-glucopyranoside as substrate, Km values of 1.17 +/- 0.35 and 1.38 +/- 0.86 mmol/L were determined for Gl-2 and Gl-3, respectively. Both enzymes were inhibited by Ag+ and stimulated by Ca2+.
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21
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Parry NJ, Beever DE, Owen E, Vandenberghe I, Van Beeumen J, Bhat MK. Biochemical characterization and mechanism of action of a thermostable beta-glucosidase purified from Thermoascus aurantiacus. Biochem J 2001; 353:117-127. [PMID: 11115405 PMCID: PMC1221549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
An extracellular beta-glucosidase from Thermoascus aurantiacus was purified to homogeneity by DEAE-Sepharose, Ultrogel AcA 44 and Mono-P column chromatography. The enzyme was a homotrimer, with a monomer molecular mass of 120 kDa; only the trimer was optimally active at 80 degrees C and at pH 4.5. At 90 degrees C, the enzyme showed 70% of its optimal activity. It was stable at pH 5.2 and at temperatures up to 70 degrees C for 48 h, but stability decreased above 70 degrees C and at pH values above and below 5.0. The enzyme hydrolysed aryl and alkyl beta-d-glucosides and cello-oligosaccharides, and was specific for substrates with a beta-glycosidic linkage. The hydroxy groups at positions 2, 4 and 6 of a glucose residue at the non-reducing end of a disaccharide appeared to be essential for catalysis. The enzyme had the lowest K(m) towards p-nitrophenyl beta-d-glucoside (0.1137 mM) and the highest k(cat) towards cellobiose and beta,beta-trehalose (17052 min(-1)). It released one glucose unit at a time from the non-reducing end of cello-oligosaccharides, and the rate of hydrolysis decreased with an increase in chain length. Glucose and d-delta-gluconolactone inhibited the beta-glucosidase competitively, with K(i) values of 0.29 mM and 8.3 nM respectively, while methanol, ethanol and propan-2-ol activated the enzyme. The enzyme catalysed the synthesis of methyl, ethyl and propyl beta-d-glucosides in the presence of methanol, ethanol and propan-2-ol respectively with either glucose or cellobiose, although cellobiose was preferred. An acidic pH favoured hydrolysis and transglycosylation, but high concentrations of alcohols favoured the latter reaction. The stereochemistry of cellobiose hydrolysis revealed that beta-glucosidase from T. aurantiacus is a retaining glycosidase, while N-terminal amino acid sequence alignment indicated that it is a member of glycoside hydrolase family 3.
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Affiliation(s)
- N J Parry
- Food Materials Science Division, Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norwich NR4 7UA, UK
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22
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Abstract
Thermophilic fungi are a small assemblage in mycota that have a minimum temperature of growth at or above 20 degrees C and a maximum temperature of growth extending up to 60 to 62 degrees C. As the only representatives of eukaryotic organisms that can grow at temperatures above 45 degrees C, the thermophilic fungi are valuable experimental systems for investigations of mechanisms that allow growth at moderately high temperature yet limit their growth beyond 60 to 62 degrees C. Although widespread in terrestrial habitats, they have remained underexplored compared to thermophilic species of eubacteria and archaea. However, thermophilic fungi are potential sources of enzymes with scientific and commercial interests. This review, for the first time, compiles information on the physiology and enzymes of thermophilic fungi. Thermophilic fungi can be grown in minimal media with metabolic rates and growth yields comparable to those of mesophilic fungi. Studies of their growth kinetics, respiration, mixed-substrate utilization, nutrient uptake, and protein breakdown rate have provided some basic information not only on thermophilic fungi but also on filamentous fungi in general. Some species have the ability to grow at ambient temperatures if cultures are initiated with germinated spores or mycelial inoculum or if a nutritionally rich medium is used. Thermophilic fungi have a powerful ability to degrade polysaccharide constituents of biomass. The properties of their enzymes show differences not only among species but also among strains of the same species. Their extracellular enzymes display temperature optima for activity that are close to or above the optimum temperature for the growth of organism and, in general, are more heat stable than those of the mesophilic fungi. Some extracellular enzymes from thermophilic fungi are being produced commercially, and a few others have commercial prospects. Genes of thermophilic fungi encoding lipase, protease, xylanase, and cellulase have been cloned and overexpressed in heterologous fungi, and pure crystalline proteins have been obtained for elucidation of the mechanisms of their intrinsic thermostability and catalysis. By contrast, the thermal stability of the few intracellular enzymes that have been purified is comparable to or, in some cases, lower than that of enzymes from the mesophilic fungi. Although rigorous data are lacking, it appears that eukaryotic thermophily involves several mechanisms of stabilization of enzymes or optimization of their activity, with different mechanisms operating for different enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Maheshwari
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, India.
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23
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Sarkar A, Upadhyay SN. Purification and characterization of cellulase fromBacillus thermoalcaliphilus isolated from a termite mound. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 1993; 38:29-32. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02814545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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24
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Kwon KS, Gyoo Kang H, Chil Hah Y. Purification and characterization of two extracellular β-glucosidases from Aspergillus nidulans. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1992. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1992.tb05454.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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25
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Prasertsan P, Oi S. Production of cellulolytic enzymes from fungi and use in the saccharification of palm cake and palm fibre. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 1992; 8:536-8. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01201957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/1992] [Accepted: 04/07/1992] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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26
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Heredia A, Fern�ndez-bola�os J, Guill�n R. Identification of endoglucanases in olives (Olea europaea arolensis). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1991; 193:554-7. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01190872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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27
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Connelly I, Filho E, Healy A, Fleming M, Griffin T, Mayer F, Coughlan M. Novel carbohydrase “complex” from solid-state cultures of the aerobic fungus Penicillium capsulatum. Enzyme Microb Technol 1991; 13:470-7. [DOI: 10.1016/0141-0229(91)90004-t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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28
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Connelly IC, Coughlan MP. Isolation and characterization of two endo-β-glucanases from solid-state cultures of the aerobic fungus Penicillium capsulatum. Enzyme Microb Technol 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/0141-0229(91)90003-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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29
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31
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Ganju RK, Murthy S, Vithayathil PJ. Purification and functional characteristics of an endocellulase from Chaetomium thermophile var. coprophile. Carbohydr Res 1990. [DOI: 10.1016/0008-6215(90)84147-m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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32
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Khandke KM, Vithayathil PJ, Murthy SK. Purification of xylanase, beta-glucosidase, endocellulase, and exocellulase from a thermophilic fungus, Thermoascus aurantiacus. Arch Biochem Biophys 1989; 274:491-500. [PMID: 2508562 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(89)90462-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
A strain of thermophilic fungus, Thermoascus aurantiacus, was isolated from local soil. From the culture filtrates of the organism grown on blotting paper, a xylanase, beta-glucosidase, exocellulase, and endocellulase were obtained in large amounts in highly purified form by employing ion-exchange and gel-permeation chromatography. The xylanase was crystallized. The xylanase and endocellulase were stable at 70 degrees C for 8 h, whereas the beta-glucosidase and exocellulase were less stable at 70 degrees C.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M Khandke
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
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33
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34
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Kolev D, Hatour F. Die multikomponenten Formen von Cellulase (EC 3.2.1.4) ausAspergillus oryzae. Monatsh Chem 1988; 119:1397-403. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00810283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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35
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Feldman KA, Lovett JS, Tsao GT. Isolation of the cellulase enzymes from the thermophilic fungus Thermoascus aurantiacus and regulation of enzyme production. Enzyme Microb Technol 1988. [DOI: 10.1016/0141-0229(88)90126-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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36
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37
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Abstract
In general, enzyme thermostability is an intrinsic property, determined by the primary structure of the protein. However, external environmental factors including cations, substrates, co-enzymes, modulators, polyols and proteins often increase enzyme thermostability. With some exceptions, enzymes present in thermophiles are more stable than their mesophilic counterparts. Some organisms produce enzymes with different thermal stability properties when grown at lower and higher temperatures. There are commercial advantages in carrying out enzymic reactions at higher temperatures. Some industrial enzymes exhibit high thermostability. More stable forms of other industrial enzymes are eagerly being sought.
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Affiliation(s)
- O P Ward
- Institute for Biotechnology Research, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
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38
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Abstract
A beta-glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.21) was purified to homogeneity from cell-free extracts of an extremely thermophilic anaerobic bacterium. The enzyme has an Mr of 43,000 as determined by molecular-exclusion chromatography, has a pI of 4.55 and shows optimum activity at pH 6.2. The enzyme is active against a wide range of aryl beta-glycosides and beta-linked disaccharides, with beta-galactosidase activity only slightly less than beta-glucosidase activity, and significant beta-xylosidase activity. Lineweaver-Burk plots for p-nitrophenyl beta-glucoside, o-nitrophenyl beta-glucoside and cellobiose substrates are biphasic concave-downwards. Inhibition of the beta-glucosidase by substrates and glucose is negligible. Thermal inactivation follows first-order kinetics, with t1/2 (65 degrees C) 45 h, t1/2 (75 degrees C) 47 min and t1/2 (85 degrees C) 1.4 min and a deactivation energy of 380 kJ/mol at pH 6.2. At pH 7.0, which is the optimum pH for thermostability, t1/2 (75 degrees C) is 130 min. At 75 degrees C, at pH 6.2, the thermostability is enhanced about 8-fold by 10% (w/v) glycerol, about 6-fold by 0.2 M-cellobiose and about 3-fold by 5 mM-dithiothreitol and 5 mM-2-mercaptoethanol.
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Affiliation(s)
- M L Patchett
- School of Science, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand
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39
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40
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Reynolds PH, Sissons CH, Daniel RM, Morgan HW. Comparison of Cellulolytic Activities in
Clostridium thermocellum
and Three Thermophilic, Cellulolytic Anaerobes. Appl Environ Microbiol 1986; 51:12-7. [PMID: 16346961 PMCID: PMC238808 DOI: 10.1128/aem.51.1.12-17.1986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Avicelase, carboxymethyl cellulase (CMCase), and β-glucosidase activities have been compared between
Clostridium thermocellum
and three extremely thermophilic, cellulolytic anaerobes, isolates TP8, TP11, and KT8. The three isolates were all small, gram-negative staining, oval-ended rods which occurred singly and, at exponential phase, in long chains. They were nonflagellated and no spores were visible. The KT8 and TP11 isolates caused clumping of the cellulose during growth. In all four organisms the CMCase activity paralleled cell growth; however, in
C. thermocellum
and TP8 the avicelase activity did not increase until early stationary phase. Total CMCase activity in
C. thermocellum
was significantly higher than in the three isolates; however, avicelase activities were much more comparable among the four organisms.
C. thermocellum
produced higher levels of ethanol, and all four organisms produced similar concentrations of acetate. The amounts of free and bound CMCase and avicelase activities were investigated. In
C. thermocellum
and TP8 most of the CMCase and avicelase activities were bound to the cellulose in the medium. In contrast, most of the CMCase activity in TP11 and KT8 was free in the culture supernatant; a significant percentage of avicelase activity was also free. The TP8 isolate was also grown on a defined medium with urea as sole nitrogen source and cellulose serving as the carbon source. Under these conditions the pattern of enzyme production was the same as that in the enriched medium, although the level of that production was considerably reduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- P H Reynolds
- Thermophile Research Unit, School of Science, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand
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41
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42
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43
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Vidmar S, Turk V, Kregar I. Cellulolytic complex of Aspergillus niger under conditions for citric acid production. Isolation and characterization of two ?-(1?4)-glucan hydrolases. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 1984; 20:326-30. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00270594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Abstract
An inducible endo-beta-1,6-glucanase was purified from Penicillium brefeldianum by DEAE-cellulose, Bio-Gel P-150 and high-pressure liquid chromatography. The final preparation was essentially free from beta-1,3-glucanase and beta-glucosidase activities. Sodium dodecyl sulphate/polyacrylamide-gel electrophoresis revealed one protein band with an Mr of 44000. The Vmax. and Km values were calculated to be 624 units (mumol/min)/mg and 2.78 mg/ml respectively. The glucanase had lytic activity against mycelial cells of the yeast Candida albicans. The yield of purified beta-1,6-glucanase from 100 mg dry weight of freeze-dried culture filtrate varied from 60 to 180 units.
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45
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46
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Durand H, Soucaille P, Tiraby G. Comparative study of cellulases and hemicellulases from four fungi: mesophiles Trichoderma reesei and Penicillium sp. and thermophiles Thielavia terrestris and Sporotrichum cellulophilum. Enzyme Microb Technol 1984. [DOI: 10.1016/0141-0229(84)90027-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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47
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Marcy RM, Engelhardt TC, Upadhyay JM. Isolation, partial purification, and some properties of protease I from a thermophilic mold Thermoascus aurantiacus var. levisporus. Mycopathologia 1984. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00436630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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48
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49
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Rolz C. Microbial Biomass from Renewables: A Second Review of Alternatives. Elsevier; 1984. pp. 213-356. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-040307-3.50013-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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50
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