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Friedmann A, Goehre F, Ludtka C, Mendel T, Meisel HJ, Heilmann A, Schwan S. Microstructure analysis method for evaluating degenerated intervertebral disc tissue. Micron 2016; 92:51-62. [PMID: 27871028 DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2016.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Revised: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Degeneration of intervertebral disc (IVD) tissue is characterized by several structural changes that result in variations in disc physiology and loss of biomechanical function. The complex process of degeneration exhibits highly intercorrelated biomechanical, biochemical, and cellular interactions. There is currently some understanding of the cellular changes in degenerated intervertebral disc tissue, but microstructural changes and deterioration of the tissue matrix has previously been rarely explored. In this work, sequestered IVD tissue was successfully characterized using histology, light microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to quantitatively evaluate parameters of interest for intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) such as delamination of the collagenous matrix, cell density, cell size, and extra cellular matrix (ECM) thickness. Additional qualitative parameters investigated included matrix fibration and irregularity, neovascularization of the IVD, granular inclusions in the matrix, and cell cluster formation. The results of this study corroborated several previously published findings, including those positively correlating female gender and IVD cell density, age and cell size, and female gender and ECM thickness. Additionally, an array of quantitative and qualitative investigations of IVD degeneration could be successfully evaluated using the given methodology, resin-embedded SEM in particular. SEM is especially practical for studying micromorphological changes in tissue, as other microscopy methods can cause artificial tissue damage due to the preparation method. Investigation of the microstructural changes occurring in degenerated tissue provides a greater understanding of the complex process of disc degeneration as a whole. Developing a more complete picture of the degenerative changes taking place in the intervertebral disc is crucial for the advancement and application of regenerative therapies based on the pathology of intervertebral disc degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Friedmann
- Fraunhofer Institute for Microstructure of Materials and Systems IMWS, Department of Biological and Macromolecular Materials, Halle, Germany
| | - Felix Goehre
- BG Klinikum Bergmannstrost Halle gGmbH, Department of Neurosurgery, Halle, Germany; University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Department of Neurosurgery, Finland
| | - Christopher Ludtka
- Fraunhofer Institute for Microstructure of Materials and Systems IMWS, Department of Biological and Macromolecular Materials, Halle, Germany; University of Tennessee, Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Knoxville, USA
| | - Thomas Mendel
- Friedrich Schiller University, Universitätsklinikum Jena, Department of Trauma Surgery, Jena, Germany
| | - Hans-Joerg Meisel
- BG Klinikum Bergmannstrost Halle gGmbH, Department of Neurosurgery, Halle, Germany
| | - Andreas Heilmann
- Fraunhofer Institute for Microstructure of Materials and Systems IMWS, Department of Biological and Macromolecular Materials, Halle, Germany
| | - Stefan Schwan
- Fraunhofer Institute for Microstructure of Materials and Systems IMWS, Department of Biological and Macromolecular Materials, Halle, Germany.
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Ultrastructure of Intervertebral Disc and Vertebra-Disc Junctions Zones as a Link in Etiopathogenesis of Idiopathic Scoliosis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1155/2014/850594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Background Context. There is no general accepted theory on the etiology of idiopathic scoliosis (IS). An important role of the vertebrae endplate physes (VEPh) and intervertebral discs (IVD) in spinal curve progression is acknowledged, but ultrastructural mechanisms are not well understood. Purpose. To analyze the current literature on ultrastructural characteristics of VEPh and IVD in the context of IS etiology. Study Design/Setting. A literature review. Results. There is strong evidence for multifactorial etiology of IS. Early wedging of vertebra bodies is likely due to laterally directed appositional bone growth at the concave side, caused by a combination of increased cell proliferation at the vertebrae endplate and altered mechanical properties of the outer annulus fibrosus of the adjacent IVD. Genetic defects in bending proteins necessary for IVD lamellar organization underlie altered mechanical properties. Asymmetrical ligaments, muscular stretch, and spine instability may also play roles in curve formation. Conclusions. Development of a reliable, cost effective method for identifying patients at high risk for curve progression is needed and could lead to a paradigm shift in treatment options. Unnecessary anxiety, bracing, and radiation could potentially be minimized and high risk patient could receive surgery earlier, rendering better outcomes with fewer fused segments needed to mitigate curve progression.
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Chen W, Tang Y, Zheng M, Jiang J, Zhu G, Liang X, Li M. Regulation of plasminogen activator activity and expression by cyclic mechanical stress in rat mandibular condylar chondrocytes. Mol Med Rep 2013; 8:1155-62. [PMID: 23982192 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2013.1654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Accepted: 07/29/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
To investigate the mechanism of cartilage degradation induced by overloading in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), the effect of cyclic mechanical compressive stress on the activity of plasminogen activator (PA) and the expression of the predominant components of the PA system were analyzed in cultured mandibular condylar chondrocytes (MCCs) in rats. MCCs were exposed to cyclic mechanical compressive stress (2000, 4000 and 6000 µ strain) at 0.5 Hz by a four‑point bending system. The activity of PA was determined by hydrolysis of the chromogenic substrate H‑D-Val-Leu-Lys‑pNA (S‑2251). The mRNA and protein expression levels of urokinase‑type PA (uPA), tissue‑type PA (tPA), uPA receptor (uPAR) and PA inhibitor 1 (PAI‑1) were detected by qPCR and western blot analysis, respectively. Cyclic mechanical stress at 4000 and 6000 µ strain induced the expression of uPA, tPA and uPAR, and increased the activity of PA. Furthermore, cyclic mechanical stress at 6000 µ strain also inhibited the expression of PAI‑1. Analysis of pericellular proteolytic activity demonstrated that PA functioned as the active enzyme in excessive mechanical stress responsiveness (e.g., 4000 and 6000 µ strain) largely via uPAR, not PAI‑1. Cyclic mechanical stress at 2000 µ strain induced the expression of tPA and PAI‑1; however, it did not change the activity of PA. These results suggested that the mechanical induction of uPA, tPA and uPAR upregulated PA activity, which may provide a proteolytic environment of extracellular matrix components and subsequently contribute to the cartilage degradation in TMJ osteoarthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
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Ciapetti G, Granchi D, Devescovi V, Leonardi E, Greggi T, Di Silvestre M, Baldini N. Ex vivo observation of human intervertebral disc tissue and cells isolated from degenerated intervertebral discs. EUROPEAN SPINE JOURNAL : OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE EUROPEAN SPINE SOCIETY, THE EUROPEAN SPINAL DEFORMITY SOCIETY, AND THE EUROPEAN SECTION OF THE CERVICAL SPINE RESEARCH SOCIETY 2012; 21 Suppl 1:S10-9. [PMID: 22395304 DOI: 10.1007/s00586-012-2234-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2012] [Accepted: 02/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Disc degeneration, and associated low back pain, are a primary cause of disability. Disc degeneration is characterized by dysfunctional cells and loss of proteoglycans: since intervertebral tissue has a limited capacity to regenerate, this process is at present considered irreversible. Recently, cell therapy has been suggested to provide more successful treatment of IVD degeneration. To understand the potential of cells to restore IVD structure/function, tissue samples from degenerated IVD versus healthy discs have been compared. METHODS Discal tissue from 27 patients (40.17 ± 11 years) undergoing surgery for degenerative disc disease (DDD), DDD + herniation and congenital scoliosis, as controls, was investigated. Cells and matrix in the nucleus pulposus (NP) and annulus fibrosus (AF) were characterized by histology. AF- and NP-derived cells were isolated, expanded and characterized for senescence and gene expression. Three-dimensional NP pellets were cultured and stained for glycosaminoglycan formation. RESULTS Phenotypical markers of degeneration, such as cell clusters, chondrons, and collagen disorganization were seen in the degenerate samples. In severe degeneration, granulation tissue and peripheral vascularization were observed. No correlation was found between the Pfirrmann clinical score and the extent of degeneration. CONCLUSION The tissue disorganization in degenerate discs and the paucity of cells out of cluster/chondron association, make the IVD-derived cells an unreliable option for disc regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Ciapetti
- Laboratory for Orthopaedic Pathophysiology and Regenerative Medicine, Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, via di Barbiano 1/10, 40136 Bologna, Italy.
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Abstract
STUDY DESIGN changes in cell density of endplate (EP), nucleus pulposus (NP), and anulus fibrosus (AF) during ageing were systematically investigated in defined regions of interest in complete human motion segments. OBJECTIVES to elucidate cell density and total cell number in distinct anatomic regions of the intervertebral disc; to test effects of gender, level and age on cell density; and to correlate changes in cell density with histologic signs of disc degeneration. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA the available information on the cell density within intervertebral discs and its age-related changes is sparse. This knowledge, however, is a crucial prerequisite for cell-based tissue engineering approaches of the intervertebral disc. METHODS in 49 complete cross-sections from lumbar motion segments (newborn to 86 years) from 22 specimens, cell density was determined by the Abercrombie method in EP, NP, and AF, and total cell number was counted per region of interest. RESULTS cell density in EP, NP, and AF decreased significantly from 0 to 16 years with the main changes occuring from 0 to 3 years for NP and AF. No significant variations were observed thereafter. We found a significant correlation of cell density and histologic degeneration score between 0 and 1, but not for scores >1. Gender and disc level did not influence cell density. CONCLUSION This study provides data concerning the total number of cells in the various regions of the intervertebral disc for different age groups. This knowledge will be beneficial for cell-based treatment approaches, which may evolve in the future.
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Effects of Physical Activity on Cardiovascular and Noncardiovascular Outcomes in Older Adults. Clin Geriatr Med 2009; 25:677-702, viii-ix. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cger.2009.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Gruber HE, Ingram JA, Davis DE, Hanley EN. Increased cell senescence is associated with decreased cell proliferation in vivo in the degenerating human annulus. Spine J 2009; 9:210-5. [PMID: 18440281 DOI: 10.1016/j.spinee.2008.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2007] [Revised: 01/18/2008] [Accepted: 01/30/2008] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND CONTEXT During disc degeneration, there is a well-recognized loss of cells. This puts the remaining cell population at high risk for any further decrease in cell function or cell numbers. Cell senescence has recently been shown to be present in the aging/degenerating human disc. Senescent cell are viable, metabolically active, persist, and accumulate over time, but cannot divide. Little is known about the relationship between renewal of the disc cell population via cell proliferation and disc cell senescence. PURPOSE To determine the percentage of senescent cells and proliferating cells in the human annulus in vivo. STUDY DESIGN/SETTING Human annulus specimens were obtained from surgical subjects and control donors in a study approved by the authors' Human Subjects Institutional Review Board. PATIENT SAMPLE One Thompson Grade I disc, 4 Grade II discs, 9 Grade III discs, and 12 Grade IV discs were studied. OUTCOME MEASURES The percentages of senescent cells and the percentage of proliferating cells. METHODS Immunohistochemistry was used to detect senescent cells using an antisenescence-associated beta-galactosidase antibody, and an antiproliferation antibody (Ki67). An average of 410 cells/specimens was counted to determine the percent senescence, and an average of 229 cells was counted to determine the percent proliferation. RESULTS Cell proliferation was low in both surgical and control normal donor annulus tissue (4.09%+1.77 (26), mean+SD (n)). There was no significant difference in the percentage of proliferating cells for more degenerate discs versus healthier discs (4.7%+1.6 (21) for Grades III and IV vs. 5.3%+1.9 (5) for Grades I and II). More degenerated Grades III and IV discs contained significantly greater percentages of senescent annulus cells than did the healthier Grades I and II discs (44.4%+20.0 (21) vs. 18.8%+11.0 (5), respectively; p=.011). A significant negative correlation was present between the percentage of senescent cells versus the percentage of proliferating cells, r=-0.013, p=.013. No correlation was present between age and the percentage of senescent cells or age and the percentage of proliferating cells. CONCLUSIONS Because senescent cells cannot divide, senescence may reduce the disc's ability to generate new cells to replace cells lost to necrosis or apoptosis. Senescent cells also accumulate in the disc over time, such that their metabolic patterns may contribute to the pathologic changes seen in degenerating discs. Novel data presented here show a significant negative correlation between the percentage of senescent cells and the percentage of proliferating cells during disc degeneration. Molecular work is underway in our lab to help us determine whether senescent cells in the disc secrete factors that can result in decreased proliferation in neighboring cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen E Gruber
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Carolinas Medical Center, PO Box 32861, Cannon Research., Room 304, Charlotte, NC 28232, USA.
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Volkov AV, Bol'shakova GB, Goldstein DV. Morphological changes in intervertabral disk tissues in a static asymmetrical compression model of degenerative dystrophic diseases of intervertabral disks. Bull Exp Biol Med 2009; 146:361-5. [PMID: 19240861 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-008-0290-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Morphological studies showed that the model of compression static asymmetric degenerative diseases of intervertebral disks in rats developed by us corresponds to degenerative diseases of the spine in humans. Three-month compression led to a significant reduction of the total disk height by 15.3% and a reduction in the content of notochondrial cells by 64.8%.
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Gruber HE, Ingram JA, Hanley EN. Morphologic complexity of the pericellular matrix in the annulus of the human intervertebral disc. Biotech Histochem 2008; 82:217-25. [PMID: 18074268 DOI: 10.1080/10520290701713999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The pericellular region of the extracellular matrix (ECM) contains collagens, proteoglycans and other noncollagenous matrix proteins. Although such specialized pericellular ECM has been well studied in articular cartilage, little is known about the pericellular matrix in the disc. In the study reported here, pericellular matrix was studied in annulus tissue from 52 subjects ranging in age from 17-74 years. In aging/degenerating intervertebral discs, cells were identified that formed a distinctive cocoon of encircling pericellular ECM. Immunohistochemical studies identified types I, II, III and VI collagen in these pericellular sites with diverse morphological features. Similar types of changes in the pericellular matrix were observed in both surgical specimens and control donor discs. Results indicate the need for future studies to address why such specialized matrix regions form around certain disc cells and to determine the consequences of these unusual matrix regions on annular lamellar organization and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- H E Gruber
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Carolinas Medical Center, Charlotte, North Carolina 28232, USA.
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Zhao CQ, Wang LM, Jiang LS, Dai LY. The cell biology of intervertebral disc aging and degeneration. Ageing Res Rev 2007; 6:247-61. [PMID: 17870673 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2007.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 290] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2007] [Revised: 08/02/2007] [Accepted: 08/07/2007] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Intervertebral disc degeneration, which mimics disc aging but occurs at an accelerated rate, is considered to be related to neck or low back pain and disc herniation. Degenerated discs show breakdown of the extracellular matrix and thus fail to bear the daily loadings exerted on the spine. Rather than a passive process of wear and tear, disc degeneration is an aberrant, cell-mediated response to progressive structural failure due to aging and other environmental factors such as abnormal mechanical stress. With aging and degeneration, disc cells undergo substantially biologic changes, including alternation of cell type in the nucleus pulposus, increased cell density but decreased number of viable cells as a result of increased cell death and increased cell proliferation, increased cell senescence, and altered cell phenotype which is characterized by compromised capability of synthesizing correct matrix components and by enhanced catabolic metabolism. These changes are involved in the process of disc degeneration through the complicated interactions among them. To retard or reverse disc degeneration, the abnormal conditions of the decreased viable cell population and the altered cell phenotype should be corrected. As potential therapies for disc degeneration, intradiscal protein injection, gene transfer and cell implantation are being understudied in vivo. Suppression of excessive apoptosis and accelerated senescence of disc cells may be other choices for treating disc degeneration. When performing a biologic therapy in order to repair or regenerate the degenerated disc, nutrient and biomechanical factors should also be incorporated, because they are the major causes of the biologic changes experienced by disc cells. Moreover, a very early intervention is indicated by the finding that the onset of human disc degeneration occurs as early as by adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Qing Zhao
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, 1665 Kongjiang Road, 200092 Shanghai, China
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Hirakawa H, Kusumi T, Nitobe T, Ueyama K, Tanaka M, Kudo H, Toh S, Harata S. An immunohistochemical evaluation of extracellular matrix components in the spinal posterior longitudinal ligament and intervertebral disc of the tiptoe walking mouse. J Orthop Sci 2005; 9:591-7. [PMID: 16228677 DOI: 10.1007/s00776-004-0823-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2003] [Accepted: 07/13/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament (OPLL) in the spine is caused by systemic and/or regional factors affecting the regulation of osteocartilaginous formation and maintenance. The aims of this study were to elucidate the relationship between the degeneration of the intervertebral discs and changes in the posterior longitudinal ligament (PLL) in the tiptoe walking (ttw) mouse, an animal model of OPLL, and to analyze the sequential changes of the cells producing extracellular matrix components using immunohistochemical methods. At 6 weeks of age, the discs degenerated and the chondrocytes in the nucleus pulposus were positive for chondroitin-6-sulfate in the ttw mice. The fibroblasts in the PLL at the disc level were positively stained with type II and XI collagens. At 14 weeks, the discs herniated into the thickened PLL, and chondrocyte-like cells appeared in the PLL at vertebral endplate level. At 18 and 22 weeks, the number of chondrocyte-like cells increased in the PLL and expressed type I collagen. A potent regional factor causing OPLL in the ttw mice appears to be the initial degeneration and subsequent herniation of the nucleus pulposus. These sequential changes in the ttw mice were accelerated by administration of etidronate. It was suggested that etidronate stimulated the cartilaginous hyperplasia in the PLL of the ttw mice. It appeared as if the PLL transformed itself into cartilaginous tissue to repair the degeneration of the intervertebral disc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitoshi Hirakawa
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Hirosaki University School of Medicine, Hirosaki, Japan
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