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Bonney C, Pang S, Meyers MA, Jasiuk I. Viscoelastic properties of the equine hoof wall. Acta Biomater 2024; 184:264-272. [PMID: 38908419 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2024.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2024] [Revised: 06/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
The equine hoof wall has outstanding impact resistance, which enables high-velocity gallop over hard terrain with minimum damage. To better understand its viscoelastic behavior, complex moduli were determined using two complementary techniques: conventional (∼5 mm length scale) and nano (∼1 µm length scale) dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). The evolution of their magnitudes was measured for two hydration conditions: fully hydrated and ambient. The storage modulus of the ambient hoof wall was approximately 400 MPa in macro-scale experiments, decreasing to ∼250 MPa with hydration. In contrast, the loss tangent decreased for both hydrated (∼0.1-0.07) and ambient (∼0.04-0.01) conditions, over the frequency range of 1-10 Hz. Nano-DMA indentation tests conducted up to 200 Hz showed little frequency dependence beyond 10 Hz. The loss tangent of tubular regions showed more hydration sensitivity than in intertubular regions, but no significant difference in storage modulus was observed. Loss tangent and effective stiffness were higher in indentations for both hydration levels. This behavior is attributed to the hoof wall's hierarchical structure, which has porosity, functionally graded aspects, and material interfaces that are not captured at the scale of indentation. The hoof wall's viscoelasticity characterized in this work has implications for the design of bioinspired impact-resistant materials and structures. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The outer wall of horse hooves evolved to withstand heavy impacts during gallop. While previous studies have measured the properties of the hoof wall in slowly changing conditions, we wanted to quantify its behavior using experiments that replicate the quickly changing forces of impact. Since the hoof wall's structure is complex and contributes to its overall performance, smaller scale experiments were also performed. The behavior of the hoof wall was within the range of other biological materials and polymers. When hydrated, it becomes softer and can dissipate more energy. This work improves our understanding of the hoof's function and allows for more accurate simulations that can account for different impact speeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Bonney
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, USA
| | - Siyuan Pang
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, USA
| | - Marc A Meyers
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California San Diego, USA; Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California San Diego, USA; Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | - Iwona Jasiuk
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, USA.
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Deeming LE, Beausoleil NJ, Stafford KJ, Webster JR, Cox N, Zobel G. Evaluating the immediate effects of hoof trimming on dairy goat hoof conformation and joint positions. Vet Res Commun 2024; 48:1073-1082. [PMID: 38103118 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-023-10273-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Hoof overgrowth in commercial housed dairy goats is a major health and welfare concern; thus, it is important to better understand hoof trimming, a priority practice which addresses hoof growth. We evaluated the immediate effects of trimming on external conformation, internal joint positions, and hoof wall overgrowth of front and hind hooves. Eighty female goats were enrolled. Pre and post hoof trimming data were collected at 13, 17, 21 and 25 months of age. Overall, before trimming, a high percentage of hooves were scored as overgrown (77.8%). Trimming decreased the percentage of overgrown hooves (17.6%: P < 0.001) and other moderate/severe conformational issues: dipped heels (49.3% vs. 26.7; P < 0.001), misshaped claws (37.0% vs. 17.6%; P < 0.001), splayed claws (73.7% vs. 56.7%; P < 0.001). More hind than front hooves had dipped heels pre-trimming and (91.3% vs. 7.3%; P < 0.001) and post-trimming (52.8% vs. 0.6%; P < 0.001); over half of the hind heels were not restored to an upright position. A greater proportion of toe length was removed from the hind hooves compared to the front (0.50 vs. 0.43, P < 0.001), with the greatest proportion of hoof wall overgrowth removed from the hind hoof medial claw at the 13-month assessment (P < 0.001). Following trimming, distal interphalangeal joint angle decreased more in hind compared to front hooves (11.0° vs. 6.9°; P < 0.001); distal interphalangeal joint height decreased (0.21 cm, P < 0.001), and proximal interphalangeal joint, and heel, angles increased (7.76° and 8.93°, respectively; P < 0.001). Trimming did not restore conformation of all hooves when trimmed every 4 months, suggesting a need to investigate reasons for underlying poor conformation, including trimming frequency.
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Affiliation(s)
- L E Deeming
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Hamilton, 3214, New Zealand
- Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
- EpiVets, 565 Mahoe Street, Te Awamutu, 3800, New Zealand
| | - N J Beausoleil
- Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
| | - K J Stafford
- Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
| | - J R Webster
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Hamilton, 3214, New Zealand
| | - N Cox
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Hamilton, 3214, New Zealand
| | - G Zobel
- AgResearch Ltd. Ruakura Research Centre, Hamilton, 3214, New Zealand.
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Akbari Shahkhosravi N, Kakavand R, Davies HMS, Komeili A. The influence of equine hoof conformation on the initiation and progression of laminitis. Equine Vet J 2023; 55:862-871. [PMID: 36200564 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The health and performance of horses are significantly affected by diseases associated with the hoof. Laminitis is a critical hoof disease that causes pain and, potentially, severe hoof and bone pathology. OBJECTIVE To generate an equine hoof finite element (FE) model to investigate the impact of normal and toe-in hoof conformations on the degeneration (decrease in elastic modulus) of the laminar junction (LJ), as occurs in chronic laminitis. STUDY DESIGN Computer software modelling. METHODS A hoof FE model was generated to investigate the biomechanics of hoof laminitis. A 3D model, consisting of nine components, was constructed from computed tomography scans of an equine left forelimb hoof. The model was loaded with 100 cycles of trotting. Two different centres of pressure (COP) paths representing normal and toe-in conformations were assigned to the model. LJ injury was modelled by degenerating the tissue's elastic modulus in the presence of excessive maximum principal stresses. RESULTS FE models successfully showed findings similar to clinical observations, confirming third phalanx (P3) dorsal rotation, a symmetric distal displacement of the P3 (2 mm at the lateral and medial sides) in the normal model, and an asymmetric distal displacement of the P3 (4 mm at the lateral and 1.5 mm at the medial side) in the toe-in model. The proximal distance between P3 and the ground after LJ degeneration in the current model was significantly different from experimental measurements from healthy hooves (P < 0.01). MAIN LIMITATIONS The inability to account for variations in population geometry and approximation of boundary conditions and system relations were the limitations of the current study. CONCLUSIONS The distribution of LJ tissue degeneration was symmetric at the quarters in the normal hoof and in comparison, there was a lateral concentration of degeneration in the toe-in model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naeim Akbari Shahkhosravi
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Reza Kakavand
- Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Helen M S Davies
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Amin Komeili
- Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Harrison SM, Whitton RC, Stover SM, Symons JE, Cleary PW. A Coupled Biomechanical-Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics Model for Horse Racing Tracks. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:766748. [PMID: 35265590 PMCID: PMC8899468 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.766748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Distal limb injuries are common in racing horses and track surface properties have been associated with injury risk. To better understand how track surfaces may contribute to equine limb injury, we developed the first 3D computational model of the equine hoof interacting with a racetrack and simulated interactions with model representations of 1) a dirt surface and 2) an all-weather synthetic track. First, a computational track model using the Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) method with a Drucker-Prager (D-P) elastoplastic material model was developed. It was validated against analytical models and published data and then calibrated using results of a custom track testing device applied to the two racetrack types. Second, a sensitivity analysis was performed to determine which model parameters contribute most significantly to the mechanical response of the track under impact-type loading. Third, the SPH track model was coupled to a biomechanical model of the horse forelimb and applied to hoof-track impact for a horse galloping on each track surface. We found that 1) the SPH track model was well validated and it could be calibrated to accurately represent impact loading of racetrack surfaces at two angles of impact; 2) the amount of harrowing applied to the track had the largest effect on impact loading, followed by elastic modulus and cohesion; 3) the model is able to accurately simulate hoof-ground interaction and enables study of the relationship between track surface parameters and the loading on horses’ distal forelimbs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon M. Harrison
- Data61, CSIRO, Clayton, VIC, Australia
- *Correspondence: Simon M. Harrison,
| | - R. Chris Whitton
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Susan M. Stover
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
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Akbari Shahkhosravi N, C R Bellenzani M, M S Davies H, Komeili A. The influence of equine limb conformation on the biomechanical responses of the hoof: An in vivo and finite element study. J Biomech 2021; 128:110715. [PMID: 34482223 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2021.110715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Hoof conformation plays a key role in equine locomotion. Toe-in conformation is an abnormal condition characterized by inward deviation of the limb from its frontal axis. Several studies have documented differences in hoof deformation and hoof kinematics in horses with toe-in and normal hoof conformations. However, the reason behind this has yet to be understood. The present study hypothesizes that a different center of pressure (COP) path underneath the hoof is the cause of different deformation patterns and hoof kinematics in toe-in hooves. In vivo measurements and finite element (FE) analysis were conducted to test the hypothesis. A normal and a toe-in limb were considered for in vivo strain measurements. Strains were measured at three different sites on the hoof wall, and the stride characteristics were investigated using video recording. The magnitude of the minimum principal strain measured at the medial aspect of the toe-in hoof was much lower relative to the normal hoof. Furthermore, the toe-in hoof had a different movement pattern (plaiting) compared to the normal hoof. In the second study, an entire hoof model was simulated from computed tomography (CT) scans of an equine left forelimb. The Neo-Hookean hyperelastic material model was used, and the hoof was under dynamic loading over a complete stride at the trot. Two different COP paths associated with normal and toe-in conformations were assigned to the model. The FE model produced the same in vivo minimum principal strain distributions and successfully showed the different kinematics of the toe-in and normal hooves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naeim Akbari Shahkhosravi
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
| | - Maria C R Bellenzani
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Catholic University of Minas Gerais (PUC-MG), Poços de Caldas, MG, Brazil
| | - Helen M S Davies
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Amin Komeili
- Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Calgary, 2500 University Dr NW, AB, T2N 1N4, Canada
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Akbari Shahkhosravi N, Gohari S, Komeili A, Burvill C, Davies H. Linear elastic and hyperelastic studies of equine hoof mechanical response at different hydration levels. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2021; 121:104622. [PMID: 34116431 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2021.104622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Most simulation studies on equine hoof biomechanics employed linear elastic (LE) material models. However, the equine hoof wall's stress-strain relationship is nonlinear and varies with hydration level. Therefore, it is essential to investigate the accuracy of the LE model compared to more advanced material models, such as hyperelastic (HE) or viscoelastic models. The current research investigated performances of LE and three HE models (Mooney-Rivlin, Neo-Hookean, and Marlow) in describing equine hoof's mechanical behavior using finite element (FE) analysis. In the first attempt, a rectangular tissue specimen was simulated using the previously published experimental data. The Marlow HE model predicted the hoof wall stress-strain curve more accurately than the LE, Mooney-Rivlin, and Neo-Hookean models. The LE model accuracy, compared with the experimental results, varied within the reported range of the strain. However, the Marlow HE model perfectly matched the experimental data for a wide range of strains. In the second attempt, the entire hoof, including nine associated tissues, was modeled from computed tomography (CT) scans of an equine forelimb, and analyzed at trotting and standing modes of locomotion. The effect of environmental humidity on the hoof wall material properties was incorporated at four hydration levels; 0%, 53%, 75%, and 100%. The simulation results of the LE and HE models indicated that the minimum principal strain distribution on the hoof wall remained under 2% for various hydration levels and gait conditions. The numerical results of the Marlow HE model demonstrated better agreement with published experimental data compared to the LE, Mooney-Rivlin, and Neo-Hookean models. Higher hydration levels significantly increased the strains - a potential explanation could be the fact that the higher hydration levels decreased stiffness of the hoof wall tissues and ultimately increased strains. Higher ground reaction forces increased the von Mises stress at various points in the hoof wall, especially in the quarter regions and close to the coronet, where cracks and fractures are found more often in the physiological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naeim Akbari Shahkhosravi
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia.
| | - Soheil Gohari
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Amin Komeili
- School of Engineering, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. E, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Colin Burvill
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Helen Davies
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Strickson EC, Hutchinson JR, Wilkinson DM, Falkingham PL. Can skeletal surface area predict in vivo foot surface area? J Anat 2020; 236:72-84. [PMID: 31713855 PMCID: PMC6904632 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The surface area of feet in contact with the ground is a key morphological feature that influences animal locomotion. Underfoot pressures (and consequently stresses experienced by the foot), as well as stability of an animal during locomotion, depend on the size and shape of this area. Here we tested whether the area of a skeletal foot could predict in vivo soft tissue foot surface area. Computed tomography scans of 29 extant tetrapods (covering mammals, reptiles, birds and amphibians) were used to produce models of both the soft tissues and the bones of their feet. Soft tissue models were oriented to a horizontal plane, and their outlines projected onto a surface to produce two-dimensional silhouettes. Silhouettes of skeletal models were generated either from bones in CT pose or with all autopodial bones aligned to the horizontal plane. Areas of these projections were calculated using alpha shapes (mathematical tight-fitting outline). Underfoot area of soft tissue was approximately 1.67 times that of skeletal tissue area (~ 2 times for manus, ~ 1.6 times for pes, if analysed separately). This relationship between skeletal foot area and soft tissue area, while variable in some of our study taxa, could provide information about the size of the organisms responsible for fossil trackways, suggest what size of tracks might be expected from potential trackmakers known only from skeletal remains, and aid in soft tissue reconstruction of skeletal remains for biomechanical modelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. Catherine Strickson
- School of Natural Sciences and PsychologyFaculty of ScienceSchool of Biological and Environmental SciencesLiverpoolUK
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion LaboratoryDepartment of Comparative Biomedical SciencesThe Royal Veterinary CollegeHatfieldUK
| | | | - Peter L. Falkingham
- School of Natural Sciences and PsychologyFaculty of ScienceSchool of Biological and Environmental SciencesLiverpoolUK
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Deeming LE, Beausoleil NJ, Stafford KJ, Webster JR, Staincliffe M, Zobel G. The Development of a Hoof Conformation Assessment for Use in Dairy Goats. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:E973. [PMID: 31739587 PMCID: PMC6912638 DOI: 10.3390/ani9110973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The assessment of hoof conformation is important due to its recognized relationship with the biomechanical functionality of the hoof. Hoof conformation can be assessed using objective measures or subjective scores. However, to date, there are limited data using either method in dairy goats. Therefore, the aims were to (1) develop a reliable method of assessing hoof conformation in dairy goats, and (2) compare two aspects of a subjective assessment against corresponding objective measures as a means of validation. A total of 1035 goats contributed photographs across 16 commercial dairy goat farms. Photographs were taken of the left front and left hind hoof in the lateral and dorsal aspect at five assessments across the goats' first two lactations. Hoof conformation was assessed using five subjective scores (toe length, heel shape, fetlock shape, claw splay, and claw shape) and two objective measures (toe length ratio and claw splay distance). Following the training of two observers, high levels of inter and intra-reliability were achieved for both the subjective scores (>0.8 weighted kappa) and objective measures (>0.8 Lin's concordance correlation coefficient). Two aspects of the subjectively assessed ordinal scores were compared with the objective measures with high levels of accuracy (>0.8). This suggests that the subjective scores may be a suitable alternative to more time-consuming objective measures when assessment is completed using photographs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E. Deeming
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, 10 Bisley Road, Hamilton 3214, New Zealand; (L.E.D.); (J.R.W.); (M.S.)
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (N.J.B.); (K.J.S.)
| | - Ngaio J. Beausoleil
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (N.J.B.); (K.J.S.)
| | - Kevin J. Stafford
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (N.J.B.); (K.J.S.)
| | - James R. Webster
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, 10 Bisley Road, Hamilton 3214, New Zealand; (L.E.D.); (J.R.W.); (M.S.)
| | - Maryann Staincliffe
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, 10 Bisley Road, Hamilton 3214, New Zealand; (L.E.D.); (J.R.W.); (M.S.)
| | - Gosia Zobel
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, 10 Bisley Road, Hamilton 3214, New Zealand; (L.E.D.); (J.R.W.); (M.S.)
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The role of claw deformation and claw size on goat lameness. Vet Anim Sci 2019; 8:100080. [PMID: 32734097 PMCID: PMC7386719 DOI: 10.1016/j.vas.2019.100080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2018] [Revised: 07/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Information regarding average width and length of goats’ dairy claws is provided. Increased width of the front claws was associated with increased likelihood of having deformation. There was a significant correlation between lameness score and the number of deformed claws.
Lameness due to claw overgrowth remains one of the main welfare challenges in dairy goat farms. Although claw trimming is a crucial part of the solution, most times there is a delay in its implementation, with no perceived consequences. The goal of this cross-sectional study was to assess the correlation between the size and deformation of dairy goats claws with lameness score. The width and length of the claws of 38 adult dairy goats were taken and classified as deformed (DEF) or non-deformed (NO_DEF). Lameness was also scored in the majority of the animals assessed for claw deformation. Deformation of at least one claw was present in 34 animals (89% of the total sample). From the 34 goats with deformed claws, 33 presented at least one deformed rear claw and 18 presented at least one deformed front claw. From the 152 claws assessed 58% were deformed (n = 88), of which 19% (n = 29) were front claws and 39% were rear claws (n = 59). Increased width of the front claws was associated with increased likelihood of having deformation with odds of 1.24, and the increased length explained 16% of the variation in lameness scores. A positive relation between lameness score and the number of deformed claws was also shown. Overall, these results suggest that the size of dairy goats’ claws influences the prevalence of deformation and lameness severity and that the number of deformed claws affects goats’ gait. They also help to build the argument in favor of regular trimming in dairy goat farms.
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Brunsting J, Dumoulin M, Oosterlinck M, Haspeslagh M, Lefère L, Pille F. Can the hoof be shod without limiting the heel movement? A comparative study between barefoot, shoeing with conventional shoes and a split-toe shoe. Vet J 2019; 246:7-11. [PMID: 30902192 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2019.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Conventional shoeing restricts heel movement, which may have a negative effect on the orthopaedic health of the horse. A randomised crossover experimental study using noninvasive techniques was performed to compare the mediolateral heel movement in barefoot horses, horses shod with a conventional toe clipped shoe and with a new type of shoe with a split toe. In eight horses, 16 forelimbs were tested barefoot, shod with a conventional shoe and with the split-toe (ST) shoe, in random order. A displacement sensor was secured on the heels and measurements were collected continuously at a frequency of 679Hz while horses were exercised on a treadmill at the walk (1.8m/s), trot (3.5m/s) and canter (8m/s). Differences in heel movement between the conditions were analysed using a generalised estimating equations approach. The conventional shoe was associated with significantly less heel expansion compared with the ST shoe and barefoot situation in all gaits (P≤0.001). Heel expansion with the ST shoe was not significantly different from the barefoot condition. For all gaits, shoeing was associated with a significant reduction in heel contraction compared with the barefoot situation (P≤0.038), except for the heel contraction at the canter using a conventional shoe. In conclusion, the heel expansion with the ST shoe did not differ significantly from when the horse was barefoot, in contrast with the significant restriction of the heel movement when a conventional shoe was used.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Brunsting
- Department of Surgery and Anaesthesiology of Domestic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - M Dumoulin
- Department of Surgery and Anaesthesiology of Domestic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - M Oosterlinck
- Department of Surgery and Anaesthesiology of Domestic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - M Haspeslagh
- Department of Surgery and Anaesthesiology of Domestic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - L Lefère
- Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Biology of Large Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - F Pille
- Department of Surgery and Anaesthesiology of Domestic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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Frazer LL, Santschi EM, Fischer KJ. Impact of a void in the equine medial femoral condyle on bone stresses and peak contact pressures in a finite element model. Vet Surg 2018; 48:237-246. [DOI: 10.1111/vsu.13139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Revised: 09/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lance L. Frazer
- Bioengineering Program, University of Kansas Lawrence Kansas
| | - Elizabeth M. Santschi
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Kansas State University College of Veterinary Medicine Manhattan Kansas
| | - Kenneth J. Fischer
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kansas Lawrence Kansas
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Modifying the Height of Horseshoes: Effects of Wedge Shoes, Studs, and Rocker Shoes on the Phalangeal Alignment, Pressure Distribution, and Hoof-Ground Contact During Motion. J Equine Vet Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2017.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Hüppler M, Häfner F, Geiger S, Mäder D, Hagen J. Modifying the Surface of Horseshoes: Effects of Eggbar, Heartbar, Open Toe, and Wide Toe Shoes on the Phalangeal Alignment, Pressure Distribution, and the Footing Pattern. J Equine Vet Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2015.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Leise BS, Faleiros RR, Watts M, Johnson PJ, Black SJ, Belknap JK. Hindlimb laminar inflammatory response is similar to that present in forelimbs after carbohydrate overload in horses. Equine Vet J 2011; 44:633-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2011.00531.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Faramarzi B, Cruz AM, Sears WC. Changes in hoof surface strain distribution in response to moderate exercise in Standardbreds. Am J Vet Res 2011; 72:484-90. [DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.72.4.484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Ramsey GD, Hunter PJ, Nash MP. The effect of hoof angle variations on dorsal lamellar load in the equine hoof. Equine Vet J 2011; 43:536-42. [PMID: 21496082 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00319.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY In the treatment of laminitis it is believed that reducing tension in the deep digital flexor tendon by raising the palmar angle of the hoof can reduce the load on the dorsal lamellae, allowing them to heal or prevent further damage. OBJECTIVE To determine the effect of alterations in hoof angle on the load in the dorsal laminar junction. METHODS Biomechanical finite element models of equine hooves were created with palmar angles of the distal phalanx varying from 0-15°. Tissue material relations accounting for anisotropy and the effect of moisture were used. Loading conditions simulating the stages in the stance where the vertical ground reaction force, midstance joint moment and breakover joint moment were maximal, were applied to the models. The loads were adjusted to account for the reduction in joint moment caused by increasing the palmar angle. Models were compared using the stored elastic energy, an indication of load, which was sampled in the dorsal laminar junction. RESULTS For all loading cases, increasing the palmar angle increased the stored elastic energy in the dorsal laminar junction. The stored elastic energy near the proximal laminar junction border for a palmar angle of 15° was between 1.3 and 3.8 times that for a palmar angle of 0°. Stored elastic energy at the distal laminar junction border was small in all cases. For the breakover case, stored elastic energy at the proximal border also increased with increasing palmar angle. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE The models in this study predict that raising the palmar angle increases the load on the dorsal laminar junction. Therefore, hoof care interventions that raise the palmar angle in order to reduce the dorsal lamellae load may not achieve this outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- G D Ramsey
- Auckland Bioengineering Institute and Department of Engineering Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Abstract
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY The economic impact of soundness problems in racehorses is very high and low hoof angle at the toe has been associated with a lack of soundness. However, it is not clear what environmental and management factors might contribute to a low hoof angle. OBJECTIVES To investigate the hypothesis that the hooves of racehorses become flatter when in gallop training, as well as to determine factors contributing to this trend. METHODS Weekly hoof measurements were taken with a hoof gauge from 45 Thoroughbred racehorses; 4 Thoroughbred show horses kept in consistent conditions and shod by the same farrier as some of the racehorses; and 6 unshod free-ranging horses. A further 15 horses were measured twice in one day to determine the repeatability of the method. RESULTS Repeatability coefficients were 0.31 degrees for the left hoof and 0.37 degrees for the right. Racehorses in training showed a significant decrease in hoof angle over time while free ranging horses and show horses did not. Free-ranging horses had a significantly lower angle in winter (wet) compared with summer (dry) in both left (P = 0.040) and right (P = 0.017). Show horses had no significant change in hoof angle. Racehorses that had a period of rest during the experiment (n = 11) showed a decrease in hoof angle during training and an increase over their rest period for both hooves (P = 0.005 for the left hoof, P = 0.0009 for the right). CONCLUSIONS Training for fast exercise in Thoroughbred racehorses is associated with a reduction in hoof angle and wet pasture conditions may also be associated with a reduced hoof angle in free-ranging horses. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE Gallop exercise has a potentially large effect on hoof angle and therefore, a change in angle should be expected to occur in racehorses starting fast exercise work. Hence management of horses with abnormally low hoof angles may require an adaptation to their training regime in order to minimise this effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Peel
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
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The effects of limb posture on relationships between in vitro radial hoof strain, load and joint angles. Equine Vet J 2010; 41:229-32. [DOI: 10.2746/042516409x395967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Ramos Bellenzani MC, D'andrea Greve JM, Pereira CAM. In Vitro Assessment of the Equine Hoof Wall Strains in Flat Weight Bearing and After Heel Elevation. J Equine Vet Sci 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2007.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Johnston C, Back W. Hoof ground interaction: when biomechanical stimuli challenge the tissues of the distal limb. Equine Vet J 2007; 38:634-41. [PMID: 17228578 DOI: 10.2746/042516406x158341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- C Johnston
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala
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Moleman M, van Heel MCV, van Weeren PR, Back W. Hoof growth between two shoeing sessions leads to a substantial increase of the moment about the distal, but not the proximal, interphalangeal joint. Equine Vet J 2006; 38:170-4. [PMID: 16536388 DOI: 10.2746/042516406776563242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY There is little insight into the effects of routine farriery on the internal structures of the distal limb in sound horses. OBJECTIVES To measure the effect of change in hoof conformation during a shoeing interval on the moments about the proximal and distal interphalangeal joints (PIPJ, DIPJ) and to determine whether and how the horse compensates for this change in hoof conformation. METHODS Both front feet of 9 sound Warmblood horses were measured while standing on a pressure-force measuring system and radiographed in a lateromedial direction shortly after shoeing and 8 weeks later. From these data, ground reaction forces (GRF) and lever arms were measured in order to calculate joint moments. RESULTS After 8 weeks, the moment about the PIPJ did not increase significantly, but the moment about the DIPJ did so, indicating a compensatory mechanism for a change in hoof conformation in the DIPJ. CONCLUSIONS Standing horses compensate for hoof conformation change during an 8-week shoeing interval, which leads to increased DIPJ extension and consequently an increased loading of the deep digital flexor tendon. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE This study quantifies the effect of a shoeing interval on the internal structures of the foot and helps to determine an appropriate shoeing interval for individual horses in which the hoof with the lowest hoof angle is the best indicator. The exact determination of an optimal individual shoeing interval requires further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Moleman
- Derona Equine Performance Laboratory, Department of Equine Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 12, NL-3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Affiliation(s)
- A B M Rijkenhuizen
- Department of Equine Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 12, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Thomason JJ, McClinchey HL, Faramarzi B, Jofriet JC. Mechanical behavior and quantitative morphology of the equine laminar junction. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 283:366-79. [PMID: 15747348 DOI: 10.1002/ar.a.20173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The horse's hoof is structurally modified for its mechanical functions, but studying the functional design of internal structures is hampered by the external keratinous capsule. Finite-element analysis offers one method for evaluating mechanical function of components within the capsule, such as the laminar junction. This is the epidermodermal connection that binds the hoof wall strongly to the distal phalanx. Primary epidermal laminae (PEL), projecting inward from the wall, vary in morphology and are remodeled despite being keratinous. The aim of this study is to investigate the suggestion that remodeling of PEL is influenced by mechanical stress. Circumferential and proximodistal stress distribution and relative displacement in the laminar junction are assessed by finite-element analysis (FEA) of nine hoof models. Spacing, orientation, and curvature of PEL are assessed from sections through 47 other hooves and compared with the stress and displacement data. Significant correlations are found between laminar spacing and seven displacement and stress variables, supporting the link between stresses and remodeling. Differences in external hoof shape cause regional variation in stress magnitudes around the laminar junction. This finding is in accord with previous observations that laminar morphology is individually regionally variable. This work provides the first concrete link between mechanical behavior and laminar morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey J Thomason
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada.
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Thomason JJ, McClinchey HL, Jofriet JC. Analysis of strain and stress in the equine hoof capsule using finite element methods: comparison with principal strains recorded in vivo. Equine Vet J 2002; 34:719-25. [PMID: 12455844 DOI: 10.2746/042516402776250388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Finite-element (FE) methods have great potential in equine biomechanics in evaluating mechanical stresses and strains in tissues deep within the hoof. In this study, we critically assessed that potential by comparing results of FE analyses of capsular strain with in vivo data. Nine FE models were developed, corresponding to the shape of hooves for which in vivo principal strain data are available. Each model had the wall, laminar junction, sole and distal phalanx (PIII). In a first loading condition (LC1), force is distributed uniformly to the bearing surface of the wall to determine reaction forces and moment on PIII. These reaction forces were subsequently applied to PIII in loading condition 2 (LC2) to simulate loading via the skeleton. Magnitude of the force resultant was equivalent to the vertical force on the hoof at midstance. Principal compressive strains epsilon2 were calculated at the locations of 5 rosette gauges on the real hooves and are compared with the in vivo strains at midstance. FE strains were from 16 to 221% of comparable in vivo values, averaging 104%. All models in this, and reports by other workers, show predominance of stress and strain at the toe to a greater extent than in the real hoof. The primary conclusion is that FE modelling of strain in the hoof capsule or deeper tissues of individual horses should not be attempted without corroborating experimental data.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Thomason
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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