Children who are cruel to animals: a revisit

Explaining Animal Abuse Among Adolescents: The Role of Speciesism

Animal abuse is considered a significant marker of violence towards humans, and understanding its determinants is important. In this first large-scale survey on adolescent animal abuse carried out in France, we introduced and tested the relative explanatory power of a new variable potentially involved in animal abuse: speciesism, defined as the belief that humans are intrinsically more valuable than individuals of other species. In a school sample composed of 12,344 participants aged 13-18 years, we observed that 7.3% of participants admitted having perpetrated animal abuse. Consistent with existing studies, cats and dogs were the animals most often abused. Animal abuse was a solitary behavior approximately half of the time, and in 25% of instances it involved only another person. A multivariate logistic regression revealed that animal abuse was more frequent among males and that it occurred more often among adolescents with less positive family climate, lower support from friends, lower attachment to school, and with higher anxio-depressive symptomatology. As implied by the generalized deviance hypothesis, animal abuse was related to more deviant behavior such as drunkenness and bullying. Moreover, this study showed for the first time that animal abuse was higher among adolescents who endorsed speciesist attitudes. These results suggest that beyond psychopathological factors, normative beliefs regarding the value of animals and their human use may also be involved in animal mistreatment.

Animal Abuse as a Type of Trauma: Lessons for Human and Animal Service Professionals

Animal abuse frequently occurs at the same time and the same place as other types of violence, particularly family violence. Because of that close association, this article proposes that it is the responsibility of both animal service and human service professionals to be aware of its occurrence, understand its significance, and promote appropriate professional and policy responses to it. Research literature addressing the link between animal abuse and other forms of violence ("the link") is discussed. Articles selected for review were published in a peer-reviewed journal, relevant to some aspect of the link between animal abuse and child abuse and/or domestic violence, used either a national or a longitudinal database, or relied on random sampling or a comparison group. If a study was retrospective or drawn from a convenience sample, it had to have been replicated by another study for inclusion. Finally, any measurement instruments used by the study under review must have had acceptable reliability and validity. Legal databases, such as LexisNexis, were used to identify legislation that has been passed and/or court cases that have been decided that were relevant to the topic of "the link." Strong associations were found between domestic violence, child abuse, and animal abuse; animal abuse, whether witnessed or committed, is a form of trauma. Severe animal abuse as a predictor for severe domestic violence recently emerged as a promising association. However, some of these findings on "the link" have not been translated into practice, for example, domestic violence advocates and child protection workers frequently do not ask questions about pets in the family. At the same time, the past 20 years have seen an increase in state and federal legislation and policies that have been enacted, in part, because of the growing body of evidence on the link. Knowledge of the link also has influenced a number of court cases deciding parental rights. Moreover, awareness of the link is illustrated by the passage of pet protection orders for victims of domestic violence as well as the inclusion of pet abuse as a form of domestic violence. Human service and animal service professionals should articulate more ways in which they can communicate with one another, thus adding more information and resources to any intervention or treatment of family violence.

"It's a Dog's Life": Culture, Empathy, Gender, and Domestic Violence Predict Animal Abuse in Adolescents-Implications for Societal Health

Whereas the majority of previous research conducted on animal abuse has been in environments where animal abuse is rarely evidenced, the current study investigated the ramifications of animal abuse in an environment wherein the national culture creates an ethos of the "social acceptability" of animal abuse in society. Two survey studies were conducted with adolescent participants, to investigate the role played by several factors in the prediction of animal abuse in this age group. In Study 1, with samples from two different national cultures (101 from Germany and 169 from Romania; 143 boys/135 girls; age 13 to 17), animal abuse was negatively associated with affective empathy and national culture; more frequent animal abuse was found in Romania. Affective empathy fully mediated the association between gender and animal abuse. Specifically, girls were found to be higher in affective empathy; in turn, participants who were higher in affective empathy committed less animal abuse. Witnessing animal abuse was also predictive of engaging in animal abuse, but not independent of national culture. In Study 2, 15-year-old males ( n = 21) and females ( n = 39) took part, 29 from rural and 31 from urban locations in Romania. Rural adolescents were more likely to abuse animals and had higher exposure to domestic violence, which (in turn) was associated with more animal abuse. The implications of these findings in a society where animal abuse is encouraged and enacted on a national scale are discussed.

Animal Abuse among High-Risk Youth: A Test of Agnew's Theory

Concern over animal abuse among policy-makers, law enforcement officials, and the general public remains high. Although research has marked animal abuse as an indicator of a variety of deviant outcomes, fewer projects have examined the correlates of cruelty towards animals. In this study, we apply Agnew's theory of animal abuse to explore how a wide-range of characteristics relate to deviance towards animals. In support of Agnew's theory, results reveal that a combination of individual traits and behaviors, socialization experiences, and mechanisms of social control significantly relate to animal abuse. However, measures of strain do not appear to relate to animal abuse, providing only partial support to the theory.

Animal maltreatment: Implications for behavioral science professionals

Despite the widespread belief among the public and an increasing number of law enforcement personnel that individuals who harm animals often harm other people, the subject of animal maltreatment has received little attention from behavioral scientists. Advances in comparative neuroanatomy have highlighted the ability of animals to feel physical and emotional pain, including complex psychological reactions to traumatic events. These advances, and recent studies (however sparse) that support the notion that perpetrators of crimes against animals often commit other crimes, have arguably created an ethical and practical imperative for behavioral scientists to undertake a serious examination of animal maltreatment and potential mechanisms for responding to it. In addition, the close and complex relationships many Americans have with animals and the advancements in animal protection law in the past two decades necessitate expertise on the part of forensic psychologists and psychiatrists, who will increasingly be called upon to evaluate animal maltreatment offenders and consult on related policy and legislation.

Females who maltreat animals

Studies of animal maltreatment and of untoward or abnormal aggression predominantly involve male subjects, raising the question as to whether females who engage in such behaviors are like, or fundamentally different than, their male counterparts. Inquiry to address this issue could pertain to gender similarities and differences; moreover, it could provide greater understanding of the behavior itself, in this case, animal maltreatment. Of the various patterns of animal maltreatment in the literature, there are enough studies with gender addressed to allow some observations on two patterns: animal cruelty in childhood and animal hoarding. Animal cruelty among girls may be more common than is widely assumed, but substantial recurrent cruelty appears, as expected, to be more common among males and is consistent with conduct disorder occurring more frequently among boys. Females, especially older females who live alone, predominate among animal hoarders, whose psychology is altogether different from those who engage in antisocial cruelty. The potential significance of these observations is discussed within the contexts of developmental and gender psychology.

Developmental Links between Cruelty to Animals and Human Violence

Reviews evidence for the significance of childhood cruelty to animals as a predictor of later violence toward humans. Moves are underway in the United States (US) and Britain to encourage communication and cross-fertilisation between animal welfare and child protection and crime prevention services. Literature on healthy versus deviant child-pet interactions is reviewed, with particular regard to the prediction of later violence. Assessment and definitional issues are addressed. The discussion culminates with a summary of substantive findings and the identification of several research designs that are needed to clarify the potential of early identification and remediation of child cruelty to animals as a mental health promotion and violence prevention strategy.

Childhood cruelty to animals in China: the relationship with psychological adjustment and family functioning

BACKGROUND

The current study broadened the general scope of research conducted on childhood cruelty to animals by examining the association between psychological adjustment, family functioning and animal cruelty in an Eastern context, China.

METHOD

The mothers and fathers of 729 children attending primary school in Chengdu, China participated in this study. Each parent completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, the Chinese Family Assessment Instrument, and the Children's Attitudes and Behaviours towards Animals questionnaire.

RESULTS

Findings from an actor partner interdependence model demonstrated that parents' ratings of family functioning and of their child's externalizing coping style predicted only modest amounts of variance in animal cruelty. In particular, parents' ratings of their child's externalizing coping style most consistently predicted animal cruelty. Family functioning, fathers' ratings in particular, played a minor role, more so for boys compared with girls.

CONCLUSION

This study provided the first insight into childhood animal cruelty in China, and suggests that further research may enhance our understanding of these phenomena.

Tierquälerei als Symptom von Callous-Unemotional Traits bei inhaftierten Jungen und Mädchen

Tierquälerei zählt bei Kindern und Jugendlichen als Verhaltensauffälligkeit im Sinne der Störung des Sozialverhaltens. Die vorliegende Studie untersucht den Zusammenhang von Tierquälerei und Callous-Unemotional Traits (CU-Traits) als Psychopathy-Kerndimensionen bei inhaftierten Jungen und Mädchen (n = 334). Angewendet wurde die Psychopathy Checkliste für Jugendliche (PCL:YV). Es fanden sich bei den Jungen höchst signifikante Korrelationen zwischen den CU-Traits sowie den Psychopathy-Verhaltensdimensionen und Tierquälerei. Bei den Mädchen waren die Korrelationen geringfügig kleiner, fanden sich allerdings nicht für Tierquälerei und dem Interpersonalen Psychopathy-Faktor. Die männlichen Tierquäler zeigten sowohl für die CU-Traits als auch für die Psychopathy-Verhaltensdimensionen signifikant höhere PCL:YV-Werte als diejenigen Straftäter ohne Tierquälerei. Auch die weiblichen Tierquäler erreichten in allen Psychopathy-Dimensionen höhere Werte als die Nicht-Tierquäler bis auf den Interpersonalen Faktor. Diese Befunde wurden diskutiert und möglichen geschlechtsspezifischen Profilen zugeordnet. Tierquälerei scheint als Symptom für die Unterscheidung des Antisocial bzw. des Psychopathic Types der Antisozialen Persönlichkeitsstörung des DSM-V von Bedeutung zu sein.

Conceptualising Animal Abuse with an Antisocial Behaviour Framework

Simple Summary

There is increasing acceptance of the links between animal abuse and aggressive or antisocial behaviours toward humans. Nevertheless, researchers and other professionals continue to call for methodologically sound empirical research amongst claims that current animal abuse research is methodologically limited. Below, I argue that current conceptualizations of antisocial and aggressive human behavior logically incorporate animal abuse. Given that the body of empirical evidence available to support of theories of antisocial and aggressive behaviour is large and sound, conceptualization of animal abuse as an aggressive behaviour rather than a behaviour that is somehow different, enables us to confidently promote putting current understanding into practice.

Abstract

This paper reviews current findings in the human aggression and antisocial behaviour literature and those in the animal abuse literature with the aim of highlighting the overlap in conceptualisation. The major aim of this review is to highlight that the co-occurrence between animal abuse behaviours and aggression and violence toward humans can be logically understood through examination of the research evidence for antisocial and aggressive behaviour. From examination through this framework, it is not at all surprising that the two co-occur. Indeed, it would be surprising if they did not. Animal abuse is one expression of antisocial behaviour. What is also known from the extensive antisocial behaviour literature is that antisocial behaviours co-occur such that the presence of one form of antisocial behaviour is highly predictive of the presence of other antisocial behaviours. From such a framework, it becomes evident that animal abuse should be considered an important indicator of antisocial behaviour and violence as are other aggressive and antisocial behaviours. The implications of such a stance are that law enforcement, health and other professionals should not minimize the presence of animal abuse in their law enforcement, prevention, and treatment decisions.

Associations among cruelty to animals, family conflict, and psychopathic traits in childhood

Previous research has produced mixed findings on the role of child and family factors in the genesis of childhood cruelty. The authors examined the relationships of cruelty to animals to a range of child and family factors. First, the authors test the idea that cruelty is a callous aggression that will be more strongly associated with psychopathic (callous or unemotional, CU) traits than general externalizing problems. Second, the authors operationalize family problems as open conflict rather than parenting problems as used earlier. Results indicated that for both genders, CU traits were associated strongly with cruelty. For boys, externalizing problems also added prediction in regression analyses. Family conflict was not associated with cruelty for either. These results suggest that cruelty to animals may be an early manifestation of the subgroup of children developing conduct problems associated with traits of low empathy and callous disregard rather than the more common pathway of externalizing problems and parenting problems.

Dangerous Children: Assessment and Management of Risk

BACKGROUND

  Workers in the field of child health appear to be presented with increasing numbers of young people who exhibit behaviours that pose a potential or actual risk to the safety of others.

METHOD

  A review of the current literature on the assessment and management of these children and adolescents was conducted.

RESULTS

  A history taking check-list has been devised on the basis of what is known about current associations with background and current factors and violent acts directed to others. There is emerging evidence of interventions that may be effective in reducing long-term risks in such youths. However, these are often resource intensive and may be less effective in older children and adolescents.

CONCLUSIONS

  Faced with the challenge of assessing and managing severely conduct disordered children, child and family mental health teams should develop formalised assessment procedures and protocols for managing risk factors in a multi-agency context.

Differences in younger, middle, and older children admitted to child psychiatric inpatient services

Sociodemographic, family-environmental, clinical, and service use differences among younger (3-6 years), middle (7-10 years), and older (11-16 years) children admitted to a child psychiatric inpatient service were examined. Data was collected retrospectively on 327 children using a 152-item chart abstraction form from the children's medical charts in years 1993, 1995, 1996, and 1997. The results suggest that younger children compared to their older counterparts come from poorer functioning families and that family-environmental, rather than clinical, diagnostic variables differentiate these groups. Implications of the findings for future research and practice are discussed.

Childhood animal cruelty and interpersonal violence

Conduct disorder (CD) affects 2-9% of children in this country and has been found to be relatively stable through childhood, adolescence, and into adulthood. Although many behaviors that comprise CD have been studied, there has been a lack of research on cruelty to animals. It has been suggested that animal cruelty may be exhibited by 25% of CD children and that animal abuse may be the earliest symptom evident in CD children. In addition, several studies have found a significant relationship between childhood cruelty to animals and violence toward people. Available research is reviewed in this report, including early studies on the relationship between animal cruelty and interpersonal violence, recent assessment attempts, and intervention techniques. Future research needs are also outlined and discussed.