Long-term exposure to high glucose up-regulates VCAM-induced endothelial cell adhesiveness to PBMC

Multi-omics study identifies novel signatures of DNA/RNA, amino acid, peptide, and lipid metabolism by simulated diabetes on coronary endothelial cells

Coronary artery endothelial cells (CAEC) exert an important role in the development of cardiovascular disease. Dysfunction of CAEC is associated with cardiovascular disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, comprehensive studies of the effects that a diabetic environment exerts on this cellular type are scarce. The present study characterized the molecular perturbations occurring on cultured bovine CAEC subjected to a prolonged diabetic environment (high glucose and high insulin). Changes at the metabolite and peptide level were assessed by Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (LC–MS²) and chemoinformatics. The results were integrated with published LC–MS²-based quantitative proteomics on the same in vitro model. Our findings were consistent with reports on other endothelial cell types and identified novel signatures of DNA/RNA, amino acid, peptide, and lipid metabolism in cells under a diabetic environment. Manual data inspection revealed disturbances on tryptophan catabolism and biosynthesis of phenylalanine-based, glutathione-based, and proline-based peptide metabolites. Fluorescence microscopy detected an increase in binucleation in cells under treatment that also occurred when human CAEC were used. This multi-omics study identified particular molecular perturbations in an induced diabetic environment that could help unravel the mechanisms underlying the development of cardiovascular disease in subjects with T2DM.

Endothelial Dysfunction and Diabetic Cardiomyopathy

The cardiovascular complications contribute to a majority of diabetes associated morbidity and mortality, accounting for 44% of death in those patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM) and 52% of deaths in type 2 DM. Diabetes elicits cardiovascular dysfunction through 2 major mechanisms: ischemic and non-ischemic. Non-ischemic injury is usually under-recognized although common in DM patients, and also a pathogenic factor of heart failure in those diabetic individuals complicated with ischemic heart disease. Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) is defined as a heart disease in which the myocardium is structurally and functionally abnormal in the absence of coronary artery disease, hypertensive, valvular, or congenital heart disorders in diabetic patients, theoretically caused by non-ischemic injury solely. Current therapeutic strategies targeting DCM mainly address the increased blood glucose levels, however, the effects on heart function are disappointed. Accumulating data indicate endothelial dysfunction plays a critical role in the initiation and development of DCM. Hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and insulin resistance cause the damages of endothelial function, including barrier dysfunction, impaired nitric oxide (NO) activity, excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, oxidative stress, and inflammatory dysregulation. In turn, endothelial dysfunction promotes impaired myocardial metabolism, intracellular Ca²⁺ mishandling, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, mitochondrial defect, accumulation of advanced glycation end products, and extracellular matrix (ECM) deposit, leads to cardiac stiffness, fibrosis, and remodeling, eventually results in cardiac diastolic dysfunction, systolic dysfunction, and heart failure. While endothelial dysfunction is closely related to cardiac dysfunction and heart failure seen in DCM, clinical strategies for restoring endothelial function are still missing. This review summarizes the timely findings related to the effects of endothelial dysfunction on the disorder of myocardium as well as cardiac function, provides mechanical insights in pathogenesis and pathophysiology of DCM developing, and highlights potential therapeutic targets.

Microvascular basis of cognitive impairment in type 1 diabetes

The complex computations of the brain require a constant supply of blood flow to meet its immense metabolic needs. Perturbations in blood supply, even in the smallest vascular networks, can have a profound effect on neuronal function and cognition. Type 1 diabetes is a prevalent and insidious metabolic disorder that progressively and heterogeneously disrupts vascular signalling and function in the brain. As a result, it is associated with an array of adverse vascular changes such as impaired regulation of vascular tone, pathological neovascularization and vasoregression, capillary plugging and blood brain barrier disruption. In this review, we highlight the link between microvascular dysfunction and cognitive impairment that is commonly associated with type 1 diabetes, with the aim of synthesizing current knowledge in this field.

Human Decidua Basalis mesenchymal stem/stromal cells reverse the damaging effects of high level of glucose on endothelial cells in vitro

Recently, we reported the therapeutic potential of mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) from the maternal decidua basalis tissue of human term placenta (DBMSCs) to treat inflammatory diseases, such as atherosclerosis and cancer. DMSCs protect endothelial cell functions from the negative effects of oxidative stress mediators including hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and monocytes. In addition, DBMSCs induce the generation of anti‐cancer immune cells known as M1 macrophages. Diabetes is another inflammatory disease where endothelial cells are injured by H₂O₂ produced by high level of glucose (hyperglycaemia), which is associated with development of thrombosis. Here, we investigated the ability of DBMSCs to reverse the damaging effects of high levels of glucose on endothelial cells. DBMSCs and endothelial cells were isolated from human placental and umbilical cord tissues, respectively. Endothelial cells were incubated with glucose in presence of DBMSCs, and their functions were evaluated. The effect of DBMSCs on glucose‐ treated endothelial cell expression of genes was also determined. DBMSCs reversed the effects of glucose on endothelial cell functions including proliferation, migration, angiogenesis and permeability. In addition, DBMSCs modified the expression of several genes mediating essential endothelial cell functions including survival, apoptosis, permeability and angiogenesis. We report the first evidence that DBMSCs protect the functions of endothelial cells from the damaging effects of glucose. Based on these results, we establish that DBMSCs are promising therapeutic agents to repair glucose‐induced endothelial cell injury in diabetes. However, these finding must be investigated further to determine the pathways underlying the protective role of DBMSCs on glucose‐stimulated endothelial cell Injury.

Hyperglycemia and advanced glycation end products disrupt BBB and promote occludin and claudin-5 protein secretion on extracellular microvesicles

Cognitive impairment is a well-known complication of diabetes mellitus (DM). Microvascular compromise was described one DM complication. Recently we showed blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability and memory loss are associated with diminution of tight junctions (TJ) in brain endothelium and pericyte coverage and inflammation in cerebral microvessels and brain tissue paralleling hyperglycemia in mice of both DM types. The current study demonstrates that exposure of brain microvessels to hyperglycemic conditions or advanced glycation end products (AGEs) ex vivo resulted in significant abnormalities in membranous distribution of TJ proteins. We found significant increase in the amount of extracellular vesicles (EVs) isolated from DM mice and enhanced presence of TJ proteins, occludin and claudin-5, on EVs. Exposure of BMVECs to high glucose and AGEs led to significant augmentation of ICAM and VCAM expression, elevated leukocyte adhesion to and migration across BMVEC monolayers, and increased BBB permeability in vitro. Pericytes exposed to hyperglycemia and AGEs displayed diminished expression of integrin α1, PDGF-R1β and connexin-43. Our findings indicate BBB compromise in DM ex vivo, in vitro and in vivo models in association with BMVEC/pericyte dysfunction and inflammation. Prevention of BBB injury may be a new therapeutic approach to avert cognitive demise in DM.

The Effects of Peritoneal Dialysis Solutions on Peritoneal Host Defense

Conventional peritoneal dialysis fluid (PDF) is a bioincompatible solution owing to the acidic pH, the high glucose concentrations and the associated hyperosmolarity, the high lactate concentrations, and the presence of glucose degradation products (GDPs). This unphysiologic composition adversely affects peritoneal host defense and may thus contribute to the development of PD-related peritonitis. The viability of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, monocytes, peritoneal macrophages, and mesothelial cells is severely depressed in the presence of conventional PDF. In addition, the production of inflammatory cytokines and chemoattractants by these cells is markedly affected by conventional PDF. Further, conventional PDF hampers the recruitment of circulating leukocytes in response to an infectious stimulus. Finally, phagocytosis, respiratory burst, and bacterial killing are markedly lower when polymorphonuclear leukocytes, monocytes, and peritoneal macrophages are exposed to conventional PDF. Although there are a few discrepant results, all major PDF components have been implicated as causative factors. Generally, novel PDF with alternative osmotic agents or with alternative buffers, neutral pH, and low GDP content have much milder inhibitory effects on peritoneal host defense. Clinical studies, however, still need to demonstrate their superiority with respect to the incidence of PD-related peritonitis.

Increased Leukocyte Rolling in Newly Formed Mesenteric Vessels in the Rat during Peritoneal Dialysis

Objective

Long-term peritoneal dialysis (PD) is associated with the development of functional and structural alterations of the peritoneal membrane. The present study reports the effects of chronic exposure to PD fluid on mesenteric leukocyte–endothelium interactions, using intravital video microscopy.

Methods

Rats ( n = 7) received 10 mL lactate-buffered 3.86% glucose-containing PD fluid daily during a 5-week period via a subcutaneously implanted mini access port that was connected via a catheter to the peritoneal cavity. In a first control group ( n = 8), catheters were implanted but no fluid was instilled; a second control group ( n = 8) remained untreated. The number of rolling and adherent leukocytes as well as blood flow and other fluid dynamic variables were analyzed in mesenteric postcapillary (diameter 10 – 25 μ) and collecting (diameter 26 – 40 μ) venules. Neovascularization was semiquantitatively assessed after inspection of video images and by light and electron microscopy. Using FITC-labeled albumin, microvascular leakage was examined.

Results

Rats exposed to PD fluid showed a more than twofold increase in the number of rolling leukocytes ( p < 0.01); the number of adherent leukocytes was not changed. Furthermore, exposure to PD fluid induced severe neovascularization in rat mesentery. No microvascular leakage was observed in the various groups. The observed differences could not be explained by differences in systemic or local hemodynamic parameters or peripheral leukocyte counts, but is most likely associated with new vessel formation.

Conclusions

Exposure of rat peritoneal membrane to conventional PD fluid for 5 weeks affected local leukocyte–endothelium interactions. In addition, severe angiogenesis was induced, whereas microvascular permeability remained unaltered.

Association Between Glucose Metabolism And Vascular Aging In Chinese Adults: A Cross-Sectional Analysis In The Tianning Cohort Study

Aim

Fasting glucose has been associated with vascular aging, but the association between HbA1c and vascular aging has been limitedly studied in Chinese and other ethnic populations. We aimed to examine this association in a large sample of Chinese adults.

Methods

In the Tianning Cohort (N=5142), fasting glucose, HbA1c, carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cfPWV), and pulse pressure (PP) were measured. Vascular aging was defined as having the highest quartile level of cfPWV or PP. We applied quantile regression models to examine the association between glucose metabolism and vascular aging.

Results

The median cfPWV was significantly increased as increasing quintiles of fasting glucose (β=0.14, P<0.001) and HbA1c (β=0.07, P=0.0056), respectively. Per 1-mmol/L increment of fasting glucose was significantly associated with a higher risk of having vascular aging defined by cfPWV (OR=1.05, P=0.022), PP (OR=1.06, P=0.048), or either (OR=1.08, P=0.002). Similarly, per 1% increment of HbA1c was significantly associated with a higher risk of having vascular aging defined by cfPWV (OR=1.06, P=0.044), PP (OR=1.10, P=0.012), or either (OR=1.12, P=0.042).

Conclusion

Glucose metabolism was significantly and positively associated with vascular aging in Chinese adults, but the causality is uncertain.

Methylglyoxal triggers human aortic endothelial cell dysfunction via modulation of the KATP/MAPK pathway

Endothelial dysfunction is a key risk factor in diabetes-related multiorgan damage. Methylglyoxal (MGO), a highly reactive dicarbonyl generated primarily as a by-product of glycolysis, is increased in both type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients. MGO can rapidly bind with proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, resulting in structural and functional changes. MGO can also form advanced glycation end products (AGEs). How MGO causes endothelial cell dysfunction, however, is not clear. Human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) from healthy (H-HAECs) and type 2 diabetic (D-HAECs) donors were cultured in endothelial growth medium (EGM-2). D-HAECs demonstrated impaired network formation (on Matrigel) and proliferation (MTT assay), as well as increased apoptosis (caspase-3/7 activity and TUNEL staining), compared with H-HAECs. High glucose (25 mM) or AGEs (200 ng/ml) did not induce such immediate, detrimental effects as MGO (10 µM). H-HAECs were treated with MGO (10 µM) for 24 h with or without the ATP-sensitive potassium (K_ATP) channel antagonist glibenclamide (1 µM). MGO significantly impaired H-HAEC network formation and proliferation and induced cell apoptosis, which was reversed by glibenclamide. Furthermore, siRNA against the K_ATP channel protein Kir6.1 significantly inhibited endothelial cell function at basal status but rescued impaired endothelial cell function upon MGO exposure. Meanwhile, activation of MAPK pathways p38 kinase, c-Jun NH²-terminal kinase (JNK), and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) (determined by Western blot analyses of their phosphorylated forms, p-JNK, p-p38, and p-ERK) in D-HAECs were significantly enhanced compared with those in H-HAECs. MGO exposure enhanced the activation of all three MAPK pathways in H-HAECs, whereas glibenclamide reversed the activation of p-stress-activated protein kinase/JNK induced by MGO. Glyoxalase-1 (GLO1) is the endogenous MGO-detoxifying enzyme. In healthy mice that received an inhibitor of GLO1, MGO deposition in aortic wall was enhanced and endothelial cell sprouting from isolated aortic segment was significantly inhibited. Our data suggest that MGO triggers endothelial cell dysfunction by activating the JNK/p38 MAPK pathway. This effect arises partly through activation of K_ATP channels. By understanding how MGO induces endothelial dysfunction, our study may provide useful information for developing MGO-targeted interventions to treat vascular disorders in diabetes.

Vascular endothelial dysfunction, a major mediator in diabetic cardiomyopathy

Diabetes mellitus is currently a major public health problem. A common complication of diabetes is cardiac dysfunction, which is recognized as a microvascular disease that leads to morbidity and mortality in diabetic patients. While ischemic events are commonly observed in diabetic patients, the risk for developing heart failure is also increased, independent of the severity of coronary artery disease and hypertension. This diabetes-associated clinical entity is considered a distinct disease process referred to as "diabetic cardiomyopathy". However, it is not clear how diabetes promotes cardiac dysfunction. Vascular endothelial dysfunction is thought to be one of the key risk factors. The impact of diabetes on the endothelium involves several alterations, including hyperglycemia, fatty acid oxidation, reduced nitric oxide (NO), oxidative stress, inflammatory activation, and altered barrier function. The current review provides an update on mechanisms that specifically target endothelial dysfunction, which may lead to diabetic cardiomyopathy.

Human chorionic villous mesenchymal stem/stromal cells protect endothelial cells from injury induced by high level of glucose

BACKGROUND

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells derived from chorionic villi of human term placentae (pMSCs) protect human endothelial cells from injury induced by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). In diabetes, elevated levels of glucose (hyperglycaemia) induce H₂O₂ production, which causes the endothelial dysfunction that underlies the enhanced immune responses and adverse complications associated with diabetes, which leads to thrombosis and atherosclerosis. In this study, we examined the ability of pMSCs to protect endothelial cell functions from the negative impact of high level of glucose.

METHODS

pMSCs isolated from the chorionic villi of human term placentae were cultured with endothelial cells isolated from human umbilical cord veins in the presence of glucose. Endothelial cell functions were then determined. The effect of pMSCs on gene expression in glucose-treated endothelial cells was also determined.

RESULTS

pMSCs reversed the effect of glucose on key endothelial cell functions including proliferation, migration, angiogenesis, and permeability. In addition, pMSCs altered the expression of many genes that mediate important endothelial cell functions including survival, apoptosis, adhesion, permeability, and angiogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first comprehensive study to provide evidence that pMSCs protect endothelial cells from glucose-induced damage. Therefore, pMSCs have potential therapeutic value as a stem cell-based therapy to repair glucose-induced vascular injury and prevent the adverse complications associated with diabetes and cardiovascular disease. However, further studies are necessary to reveal more detailed aspects of the mechanism of action of pMSCs on glucose-induced endothelial damage in vitro and in vivo.

Endothelial function and dysfunction: Impact of metformin

Cardiovascular and metabolic diseases remain the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Endothelial dysfunction is a key player in the initiation and progression of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. Current evidence suggests that the anti-diabetic drug metformin improves insulin resistance and protects against endothelial dysfunction in the vasculature. Hereby, we provide a timely review on the protective effects and molecular mechanisms of metformin in preventing endothelial dysfunction and cardiovascular and metabolic diseases.

Baicalin, baicalein and wogonin inhibits high glucose-induced vascular inflammation in vitro and in vivo

Vascular inflammatory process has been suggested to play a key role in initiation and progression of atherosclerosis, a major complication of diabetes mellitus. Thus, in this study, we attempted to determine whether three structurally related polyphenols found in the Chinese herb Huang Qui, namely baicalin, baicalein, and wogonin, can suppress vascular inflammatory processes induced by high glucose (HG) in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and mice. Data showed that HG induced markedly increased vascular permeability, monocyte adhesion, expressions of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB. Remarkably, all of the above mentioned vascular inflammatory effects of HG were attenuated by pretreatment with baicalin, baicalein, and wogonin. Vascular inflammatory responses induced by HG are critical events underlying development of various diabetic complications, therefore, our results suggest that baicalin, baicalein, and wogonin may have significant therapeutic benefits against diabetic complications and atherosclerosis.

Vicenin-2 and scolymoside inhibit high-glucose-induced vascular inflammation in vitro and in vivo

The vascular inflammatory process has been suggested to play a key role in the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis, a major complication of diabetes mellitus. Thus, in this study, we attempted to determine whether 2 structurally related flavonoids found in Cyclopia subternata, vicenin-2 and scolymoside, can suppress high-glucose (HG)-induced vascular inflammatory processes in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and mice. The effects of vicenin-2 and scolymoside on HG-induced vascular inflammation were determined by measuring vascular permeability, leukocyte adhesion and migration, cell adhesion molecule (CAM) expression levels, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation. In addition, the anti-inflammation mechanism was investigated using immunofluorescence staining and Western blotting. The data showed that HG markedly increased vascular permeability, monocyte adhesion, expression of CAMs, formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB. Remarkably, pretreatment with vicenin-2 and scolymoside attenuated all of the above-mentioned vascular inflammatory effects of HG. HG-induced vascular inflammatory responses are critical events underlying the development of various diabetic complications; therefore, our results suggest that vicenin-2 and scolymoside have significant therapeutic benefits against diabetic complications and atherosclerosis.

Angiotensin 1-7 significantly reduces diabetes-induced leukocyte recruitment both in vivo and in vitro

OBJECTIVE

Recent studies have demonstrated that Ang1-7 has anti-inflammatory effects. Since the formation of Ang1-7 is significantly altered in the setting of diabetes, here we aimed to evaluate whether Ang1-7 infusion could ameliorate diabetes-induced leukocyte recruitment.

METHODS

Wild-type male Wistar rats were randomly allocated to the following groups: control + saline, control + Ang1-7, diabetes + saline, diabetes + Ang1-7. Diabetes was induced by streptozotocin. Saline and Ang1-7 (576 μg/kg/day) were injected intraperitoneally daily. After 4 weeks leukocyte trafficking was studied in vivo by intravital microscopy in the mesenteric bed, where the expression of pro-oxidative, proinflammatory, and profibrotic molecules was also assessed. In parallel in vitro studies, HUVEC were grown in 5 mM, 22 mM, 30 mM, 40 mM, 50 mM, and 75 mM glucose media for 48 h, 72 h and 6 days and were treated either with placebo, or with Ang1-7, or with Ang1-7 and its inhibitor A779 in order to evaluate the expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1. We further studied leukocytes recruitment in vitro by evaluating PMN-HUVEC adhesion.

RESULTS

Ang1-7 prevented in vivo diabetes-induced leukocyte adhesion and extravasation, and it significantly reduced vascular hypertrophy and the other molecular changes due to diabetes. Ang 1-7 prevented also in vitro the hyperglycemia-induced increase of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 as well as the hyperglycemia-induced PMN adhesion. A779 inhibited Ang 1-7 effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Ang1-7 significantly reduced diabetes-induced leukocyte recruitment both in vivo and in vitro. These findings emphasize the potential utility of ACE2/Ang1-7/Mas repletion as a strategy to reduce diabetes-induced atherosclerosis.

Artery Wall Assessment Helps Predict Kidney Transplant Outcome

Background

Kidney transplant recipients have high cardiovascular risk, and vascular inflammation may play an important role. We explored whether the inflammatory state in the vessel wall was related to carotid intima-media thickness (c-IMT) and patient survival following kidney transplantation.

Methods

In this prospective observational cohort study we measured c-IMT and expression of proinflammatory cytokines and adhesion molecules in the inferior epigastric artery in 115 kidney transplant candidates. Another c-IMT measurement was done 1-year post-transplantation in 107. By stepwise multiple regression analysis we explored factors associated with baseline c-IMT and their changes over time. Multivariate Cox regression analysis was constructed to identify risk factors for mortality.

Results

A worse cardiovascular profile (older age, smoker, diabetic, carotid plaque, systolic blood pressure and vascular calcification) and higher VCAM-1 levels were found in patients in the highest baseline c-IMT tertile, who also had a worse survival. Factors independently related to baseline c-IMT were age (β=0.369, P<0.0001), fasting glucose (β=0.168, P=0.045), smoking (β=0.228, P=0.003) and VCAM-1 levels (β=0.244, P=0.002). Independent factors associated with c-IMT measurement 1-year post-transplantation were baseline c-IMT (β=-0.677, P<0.0001), post-transplant diabetes (β=0.225, P=0.003) and triglycerides (β=0.302, P=0.023). Vascular VCAM-1 levels were associated with increased risk of mortality in bivariate and multivariate Cox regression. Notably, nearly 50% of patients showed an increase or maintenance of high c-IMT 1 year post-transplantation and these patients experienced a higher mortality (13 versus 3.5%; P=0.021).

Conclusion

A worse cardiovascular profile and a higher vascular VCAM-1 protein levels at time of KT are related to subclinical atheromatosis. This could lead to a higher post-transplant mortality. Pre-transplant c IMT, post-transplant diabetes and triglycerides at 1-year post-transplantation may condition a high c-IMT measurement post-transplantation, which may decrease patient survival.

High glucose induces and activates Toll-like receptor 4 in endothelial cells of diabetic retinopathy

BACKGROUND

Hyperglycemia-induced inflammation causes the dysfunction of blood vessels, and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) plays a key role in inflammation-induced angiogenesis. However, the impact of TLR4 on the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy (DR) is poorly understood. In this study, we examined the expression of TLR4 in retinal vascular endothelial cells of patients with DR and diabetic mice, and explored the role of TLR4 in mediating inflammatory responses by human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1) under high-glucose condition.

METHODS

The expression of TLR4 in retinal vascular endothelial cells of patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy and diabetic mice induced by streptozotocin was examined using immunofluorescence. HMEC-1 cells were cultured and the expression of TLR4, MyD88 and Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) was examined under high-glucose condition. Endothelial cells with TLR4 silencing and antagonist of TLR4 as well as endothelial cells from TLR4 deficient mice were used to study the effect of activated TLR4 on inflammation induced by high-glucose treatment.

RESULTS

We observed that TLR4 was detected in CD31-labled human retinal vascular endothelia and its expression was markedly increased in fibrovascular membranes from DR patients and in retinal vascular endothelial cells of diabetic mice. The expression of TLR4, MyD88 and IL-1β was enhanced by high glucose in cultured HMEC-1 and the expression of TLR4 and IL-1β was inhibited by TLR4 siRNA knock-down and TLR4 antagonist. The expression of IL-1β by endothelial cells from TLR4 deficient mice under high glucose condition was decreased.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results revealed that hyperglycemia induced overexpression and activation of TLR4 in endothelial cells. This effect may lead to inflammatory responses contribute to the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy.

Carotid Endothelial VCAM-1 Is an Early Marker of Carotid Atherosclerosis and Predicts Coronary Artery Disease in Swine

Objective

The aim was to determine if endothelial VCAM-1 (eVCAM-1) expression in the common carotid artery (CCA) would correlate with predictive markers of atherosclerotic disease, would precede reduction of markers of endothelial cell function and would predict coronary artery disease (CAD).

Methods and results

Carotid arterial segments (bifurcation, proximal and distal CCA) were harvested from 14 and 24 month-old male castrated familial hypercholesterolemic (FH) swine, a model of spontaneous atherosclerosis. Quantification of local expression of eVCAM-1, intimal macrophage accumulation, oxidative stress, intima-media (I/M) ratio, intima-media thickness (IMT), endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and phosphorylated eNOS (p-eNOS) in selected regions of the carotids revealed a relationship between local inflammation and atheroscle-rotic plaque progression. Importantly, inflammation was not uniform throughout the CCA. Endo-thelial VCAM-1 expression was the greatest at the bifurcation and increased with age. Finally, eV-CAM-1 best estimated the severity of CAD compared to blood levels of glucose, hypercholestero-lemia, carotid IMT, and p-eNOS.

Conclusion

Our data suggested that eVCAM-1 was closely associated with atherosclerotic plaque progression and preceded impairment of EDD. Thus, this study supported the use of carotid VCAM-1 targeting agents to estimate the severity of CAD.

Emodin-6-O-β-D--glucoside inhibits high-glucose-induced vascular inflammation

Emodin-6-O-β-D-glucoside (EG), a new active compound from Reynoutria japonica, has recently been shown to exert potent anti-inflammatory and barrier protective effects in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and in mice. Vascular inflammatory process has been suggested to play a key role in initiation and progression of atherosclerosis, a major complication of diabetes mellitus. Thus, we attempted to determine whether EG can suppress the vascular inflammatory process induced by high glucose (HG) in HUVECs and mice. Data showed that HG induced markedly increased vascular permeability, monocyte adhesion, expressions of CAMs, formation of ROS, and activation of NF-κB. Remarkably, all of the above-mentioned vascular inflammatory effects of HG were attenuated by pretreatment with EG. Vascular inflammatory responses induced by HG are critical events underlying development of various diabetic complications; therefore, our results suggest that EG may have significant therapeutic benefits against diabetic complications and atherosclerosis.

Fisetin inhibits high-glucose-induced vascular inflammation in vitro and in vivo

AIM AND OBJECTIVE

Fisetin, an active compound isolated from flowering plants in the family Fabaceae, was reported to have antiviral, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory effects. Vascular inflammatory processes have been suggested to play key roles in the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis, a major complication of diabetes mellitus. Thus, we determined the ability of fisetin to suppress vascular inflammatory processes induced by high glucose (HG) in primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and mice.

METHODS

The effects of fisetin on HG-induced vascular inflammation were determined by measuring vascular permeability, leukocyte adhesion and migration, cell adhesion molecule (CAM) expression levels, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, and nuclear factor (NF)-κB activation.

RESULTS

HG markedly increased vascular permeability, monocyte adhesion, expressions of CAMs, formation of ROS, and activation of NF-κB. Remarkably, all of the observed vascular inflammatory effects induced by HG were inhibited by pretreatment with fisetin.

CONCLUSION

Vascular inflammatory responses induced by HG are critical events underlying the development of diabetic complications; therefore, our results suggest that fisetin possesses significant therapeutic effects against diabetic complications and atherosclerosis.

Automated quantification reveals hyperglycemia inhibits endothelial angiogenic function

OBJECTIVE

Diabetes Mellitus (DM) has reached epidemic levels globally. A contributing factor to the development of DM is high blood glucose (hyperglycemia). One complication associated with DM is a decreased angiogenesis. The Matrigel tube formation assay (TFA) is the most widely utilized in vitro assay designed to assess angiogenic factors and conditions. In spite of the widespread use of Matrigel TFAs, quantification is labor-intensive and subjective, often limiting experiential design and interpretation of results. This study describes the development and validation of an open source software tool for high throughput, morphometric analysis of TFA images and the validation of an in vitro hyperglycemic model of DM.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

Endothelial cells mimic angiogenesis when placed onto a Matrigel coated surface by forming tube-like structures. The goal of this study was to develop an open-source software algorithm requiring minimal user input (Pipeline v1.3) to automatically quantify tubular metrics from TFA images. Using Pipeline, the ability of endothelial cells to form tubes was assessed after culture in normal or high glucose for 1 or 2 weeks. A significant decrease in the total tube length and number of branch points was found when comparing groups treated with high glucose for 2 weeks versus normal glucose or 1 week of high glucose.

CONCLUSIONS

Using Pipeline, it was determined that hyperglycemia inhibits formation of endothelial tubes in vitro. Analysis using Pipeline was more accurate and significantly faster than manual analysis. The Pipeline algorithm was shown to have additional applications, such as detection of retinal vasculature.

Hemodynamic and pathophysiological characteristics of intradialytic blood pressure elevation in patients with end-stage renal disease

An increase in systolic blood pressure (SBP) after hemodialysis (intradialytic-HTN) is associated with adverse outcomes in patients on regular hemodialysis. However, the hemodynamic and Doppler echocardiographic characteristics of intradialytic-HTN and its impact on clinical outcomes are unclear. A retrospective analysis of 84 patients (45 men, 70±9 years) stratified into three groups on the basis of SBP response from pre- to post-hemodialysis: GHTN (intradialytic-HTN, SBP increase 10 mm Hg), GDROP<15 mm Hg (SBP drop <15 mm Hg), and GDROP15 mm Hg (SBP drop 15 mm Hg). Hemodynamic and echocardiographic assessments were performed pre- and post-hemodialysis, and patients were followed for 41±17 months. GHTN had higher blood glucose and lower baseline SBP, serum potassium and total cholesterol. Cardiothoracic ratio was smaller, and peak early diastolic mitral annular velocity (E') was lower in GHTN. During hemodialysis, SBP and diastolic blood pressure increased only in GHTN. After hemodialysis, left ventricular (LV) filling pressure (E/E' ratio) decreased only in GDROP15 mm Hg, resulting in a higher E/E' ratio in GHTN than GDROP15 mm Hg. Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed a positive correlation between blood glucose and intradialytic-HTN, whereas cardiothoracic ratio, pre-hemodialysis SBP and the change in E/E' ratio with hemodialysis were negatively related to intradialytic-HTN. During follow-up, GHTN had more cardiovascular deaths than GDROP15 mm Hg (P=0.03). Multivariate Cox regression analysis showed that lower serum potassium and previous coronary artery disease, but not intradialytic-HTN, were associated with cardiovascular deaths. A higher LV afterload and elevated filling pressures after hemodialysis, indicative of increased cardiovascular stiffening and impaired diastolic filling, may contribute in part to an increased cardiovascular burden in patients with intradialytic-HTN.

Hyperglycemia and endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis: lessons from type 1 diabetes

A clear relationship between diabetes and cardiovascular disease has been established for decades. Despite this, the mechanisms by which diabetes contributes to plaque formation remain in question. Some of this confusion derives from studies in type 2 diabetics where multiple components of metabolic syndrome show proatherosclerotic effects independent of underlying diabetes. However, the hyperglycemia that defines the diabetic condition independently affects atherogenesis in cell culture systems, animal models, and human patients. Endothelial cell biology plays a central role in atherosclerotic plaque formation regulating vessel permeability, inflammation, and thrombosis. The current paper highlights the mechanisms by which hyperglycemia affects endothelial cell biology to promote plaque formation.

Increased asymmetric dimethylarginine serum levels are associated with acute rejection in kidney transplant recipients

Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) has been identified as a marker of endothelial dysfunction and an independent risk factor for cardiovascular events in uremic subjects. This study evaluated ADMA plasma levels in kidney transplant recipients. ADMA levels were serially measured during the first year posttransplantation in 41 recipients treated with cyclosporine regimen (CY), sirolimus (SIR), or low-dose cyclosporine plus everolimus (E). Homocysteine, C reactive protein (CRP), nitric oxide (NO), and standard routine laboratory analyses were determined serially. ADMA significantly increased at 6 months posttransplantation, but was significantly lower among patients on SIR or E. NO was only slightly reduced in patients with increased ADMA levels. Interestingly, ADMA was significantly increased during the first 4 days posttransplantation in patients who experienced acute rejection during the first 6 months after transplantation. The same group of patients demonstrated higher levels of CRP and systolic blood pressure before transplantation. Our results demonstrated that ADMA was increased in patients on CY at 6 months. When increased soon after transplantation ADMA may be associated with episodes of acute rejection in kidney transplant recipients. The presence of elevated systolic blood pressure, as well as CRP and ADMA levels, suggested a role for endothelial dysfunction in the development of acute rejection episodes among deceased donor kidney transplant recipients.

Thioredoxin interacting protein (TXNIP) induces inflammation through chromatin modification in retinal capillary endothelial cells under diabetic conditions

Chronic hyperglycemia and activation of receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) are known risk factors for microvascular disease development in diabetic retinopathy. Thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP), an endogenous inhibitor of antioxidant thioredoxin (TRX), plays a causative role in diabetes and its vascular complications. Herein we investigate whether HG and RAGE induce inflammation in rat retinal endothelial cells (EC) under diabetic conditions in culture through TXNIP activation and whether epigenetic mechanisms play a role in inflammatory gene expression. We show that RAGE activation by its ligand S100B or HG treatment of retinal EC induces the expression of TXNIP and inflammatory genes such as Cox2, VEGF-A, and ICAM1. TXNIP silencing by siRNA impedes RAGE and HG effects while stable over-expression of a cDNA for human TXNIP in EC elevates inflammation. p38 MAPK-NF-kappaB signaling pathway and histone H3 lysine (K) nine modifications are involved in TXNIP-induced inflammation. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays reveal that TXNIP over-expression in EC abolishes H3K9 tri-methylation, a marker for gene inactivation, and increases H3K9 acetylation, an indicator of gene induction, at proximal Cox2 promoter bearing the NF-kappaB-binding site. These findings have important implications toward understanding the molecular mechanisms of ocular inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in diabetic retinopathy.

Diabetes and vessel wall remodelling: from mechanistic insights to regenerative therapies

Over the past two decades, extensive research has focused on arterial remodelling in both physiological and pathological ageing. The concept now describes the growth as well as the rearrangement of cellular components and extracellular matrix, resulting in either reduction or increase in vessel lumen. In diabetes, remodelling extends to capillaries, microvascular beds, and arteries of different calibre. This process is paralleled by accelerated atherosclerosis and accounts for an increased incidence of ischaemic complications. The incapacity of pre-existing and de novo formed collaterals to bypass atherosclerotic occlusions, combined with a decline in tissue capillary density, is responsible for the delayed recovery from ischaemia and ultimately leads to organ failure. The mechanisms of vascular remodelling are incompletely understood, but metabolic and mechanical factors seem to play an important role. Hyperglycaemia represents the main factor responsible for the fast progression of atherosclerosis as well as microangiopathy. However, intensive blood glucose control alone is insufficient to reduce the risk of macrovascular complications. Pharmacological control of oxidative stress and stimulation of nitric oxide release have proved to exert beneficial effects on vascular remodelling in experimental diabetic models. New approaches of regenerative medicine using vascular progenitor cells for the treatment of ischaemic disease have been shown to be safe and are now being tested for efficacy in pre-clinical and clinical trials.

Soluble ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 as markers of endothelial activation

Activated endothelium releases the soluble adhesion molecules vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (sVCAM-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1). Measurement of fluid-phase adhesion molecules is therefore used to quantify endothelial activation, but it is unclear which is the better marker. The aims of the study were to compare the relationships between mRNA, surface and total expression and released VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 in endothelial cell cultures during activation, and to compare human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) with the microvascular cell line HMEC-1. sVCAM-1 better represented mRNA and surface expression changes in HUVEC undergoing endotoxin stimulation than did sICAM-1. Very little VCAM-1 was released from endotoxin-stimulated HMEC-1, and sICAM-1 seemed a better activation marker for these cells. During incubation of HUVEC in media with glucose concentrations of 5.6, 10.6 or 20.6 mM, VCAM-1 was released to the media in a dose-dependent way without changes in surface expression. ICAM-1 was not influenced by the glucose concentration. There are situations when VCAM-1 concentrations in the media do not mirror the surface expression on HUVEC in culture, indicating that measurements of soluble adhesion molecules may not necessarily be representative of the conditions on the cell surface. Endothelium from different locations showed varying responses with respect to VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 liberation upon endotoxin stimulation. Thus, both sVCAM-1 and sICAM-1 should be quantified in clinical studies of endothelial activation until their characteristics are better clarified.

Advanced glycation end products, diabetes and ageing

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are formed in vivo by a non-enzymatic reaction of proteins with carbohydrates and accumulate in many tissues during ageing. They are discussed as being responsible for many age- and diabetes-related diseases. On the other hand, AGEs are formed by the heating of food and are taken up by the nutrition. The contribution of endogenously formed versus exogenous intake of AGEs to age-related diseases is still under discussion.

Hyperglycemia increases the levels of vascular cellular adhesion molecule-1 and monocyte-chemoattractant-protein-1 in the diabetic endothelial cell

Hyperglycemia is the major cause of diabetic angiopathy. Aim of our study was to evaluate the impact of high glucose on cell growth and function of human "diabetic" endothelial cells (EC). Incubation of non-diabetic EC with glucose moderately inhibited cell growth and increased the expression of ICAM-1 and E-selectin. In the disease-specific EC, glucose treatment resulted also in moderately inhibited cell growth by 5-10%, increased basal expression of VCAM-1 by 10-20%, and an enhanced release of monocyte-chemoattractant-protein-1 (MCP-1) by 40-70%. The expression of ICAM-1 and E-selectin and the release of IL-6 and IL-8 was not affected. The usage of our disease-specific EC model might evaluate the impact of systemic factors of diabetic patients in the progression of endothelial dysfunction, and may be suitable to develop relevant therapeutic regimens.

Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1: a viable therapeutic target for atherosclerosis?

Atherosclerosis is now well recognised as a chronic inflammatory process which may ultimately lead to myocardial infarction, stroke and peripheral vascular disease. The role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis has lead to interest in developing therapies that target vascular inflammation. Leucocytes play a key role during atherosclerotic plaque development. Activated vascular endothelium expresses vascular cell adhesion cell molecule-1 (VCAM-1), a member of the adhesion molecule superfamily, to which monocytes and lymphocytes can bind. These inflammatory cells can then move through the endothelium by diapedesis and release cytokines and enzymes, important components in the progression of the lesion. Researchers have demonstrated that the extent of atherosclerotic lesions is significantly reduced in animal models with decreased VCAM-1 expression. VCAM-1 has therefore been identified as a potential anti-inflammatory therapeutic target, the hypothesis being that reduced expression of VCAM-1 will slow the development of atherosclerosis. Succinobucol (AGI-1067), an anti-oxidant compound also capable of inhibiting VCAM-1 gene expression, is an example of such an agent and is currently being investigated in a phase III cardiovascular end-point trial due to report in 2007. If the results are positive, further investigations should derive to what extent blockade of VCAM-1 by succinobucol, rather than its other effects, accounts for the reduction in vascular events.

Cannabidiol attenuates high glucose-induced endothelial cell inflammatory response and barrier disruption

A nonpsychoactive cannabinoid cannabidiol (CBD) has been shown to exert potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects and has recently been reported to lower the incidence of diabetes in nonobese diabetic mice and to preserve the blood-retinal barrier in experimental diabetes. In this study we have investigated the effects of CBD on high glucose (HG)-induced, mitochondrial superoxide generation, NF-kappaB activation, nitrotyrosine formation, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and adhesion molecules ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 expression, monocyte-endothelial adhesion, transendothelial migration of monocytes, and disruption of endothelial barrier function in human coronary artery endothelial cells (HCAECs). HG markedly increased mitochondrial superoxide generation (measured by flow cytometry using MitoSOX), NF-kappaB activation, nitrotyrosine formation, upregulation of iNOS and adhesion molecules ICAM-1 and VCAM-1, transendothelial migration of monocytes, and monocyte-endothelial adhesion in HCAECs. HG also decreased endothelial barrier function measured by increased permeability and diminished expression of vascular endothelial cadherin in HCAECs. Remarkably, all the above mentioned effects of HG were attenuated by CBD pretreatment. Since a disruption of the endothelial function and integrity by HG is a crucial early event underlying the development of various diabetic complications, our results suggest that CBD, which has recently been approved for the treatment of inflammation, pain, and spasticity associated with multiple sclerosis in humans, may have significant therapeutic benefits against diabetic complications and atherosclerosis.

Cardiovascular disease in diabetic nephropathy patients: cell adhesion molecules as potential markers?

Cardiovascular disease is a major complication of diabetes mellitus, especially for patients with diabetic nephropathy. The underlying factor or pathogenic mechanism that links diabetic nephropathy with cardiovascular disease is not known. The endothelial cell adhesion molecules, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 or vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, play a crucial role in the initiation of atherosclerosis. Levels of both cell adhesion molecules are raised by the diabetic and kidney disease states. This review focuses on these important cell adhesion molecules and their role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease in diabetes and diabetic nephropathy.

Cilostazol protects diabetic rats from vascular inflammation via nuclear factor-kappa B-dependent down-regulation of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression

Vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 plays a critical role in the initiation and development of vascular inflammation and selective inhibition of adhesion molecules expressed by endothelial cells may present a new therapeutic strategy for the treatment of vascular complications associated with diabetes mellitus. Increasing evidence indicates that cilostazol, a cAMP phosphodiesterase inhibitor, reduces VCAM-1 expression on endothelial cells. In this study, we have tested the effect of cilostazol on the development of vascular inflammation in rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes and determined the mechanism by which cilostazol prevents diabetes-induced vascular inflammation in the aorta. Diabetic rats were treated with different dose of cilostazol (27 or 9 mg/kg/day) for 8 weeks, and aortae were removed for the evaluation of vascular inflammation. The VCAM-1 protein expression and VCAM-1 mRNA transcripts were analyzed by immunohistochemical staining and in situ hybridization assay, respectively. Our results demonstrated that cilostazol treatment prevents the overexpression of VCAM-1 and protects diabetic rats from vascular inflammation. More importantly, our mechanistic studies suggested that cilostazol controls the VCAM-1 overexpression via inhibiting the activation of nuclear factor-kappaB.

Sophorae radix extract inhibits high glucose-induced vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 up-regulation on endothelial cell line

BACKGROUND

Sophorae radix (SR) has been used for various diseases including atherosclerosis and arrhythmias. Atherosclerosis induced by hyperglycemia is an important factor in the promotion of diabetic complications. An early event in atherosclerosis is the adhesion of monocytes to endothelium via adhesion molecules. Among them, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) expression mediates the binding of monocytes and lymphocytes to vascular endothelial cells.

METHODS

The study was performed on vascular endothelial cells (ECV304 cells) that were pretreated with various concentrations of SR extract for 3 h before exposure with high glucose (55.5 mmol/l) for 48 h. The protein expression of VCAM-1 was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and its mRNA expression was by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR).

RESULTS

SR extract significantly inhibited high glucose-induced expression of VCAM-1 in a dose-dependent manner and reduced the level of VCAM-1 mRNA through interfering with translocation of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB). Decreased VCAM-1 expression by SR extract was associated reduction of adherence between high glucose-stimulated ECV304 cells and human monocyte-like HL-60 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that SR extract inhibits high glucose-mediated monocytes-endothelial cells adhesions and expression of VCAM-1 via inhibition of NF-kappaB translocation.

Cellular adhesion molecules and cardiovascular disease. Part II. Their association with conventional and emerging risk factors, acute coronary events and cardiovascular risk prediction

The role of cellular adhesion molecules in the patho-genesis of atherosclerosis has now been clearly demonstrated. Plasma levels of adhesion molecules, which have been shed from the cell surface, have also been associated with the presence of clinical atherosclerotic disease, cardiovascular risk factors and acute coronary syndromes. However, there is little consensus in the literature, including between the large well-designed population studies. This may be explained either by unrecognized confounding factors or, alternatively, by the unpredictable relationship between cell surface expression and activity of cellular adhesion molecules and their shedding into the plasma under different circumstances. Probably for the latter reasons, there is at present little evidence that the measurement of circulating adhesion molecules is likely to offer any additional benefit for individual patients above the assessment of conventional cardiovascular risk factors in the assessment of either the extent of, or future risk from, cardiovascular disease.

Role of pro-atherogenic adhesion molecules and inflammatory cytokines in patients with coronary artery disease and diabetes mellitus type 2

Accelerated progression of atherosclerosis in coronary, carotid, cerebral, and peripheral arteries is a phenomenon observed in diabetes mellitus. Pathophysiologic mechanisms are slowly being understood. Pro-atherogenic adhesion molecules and inflammatory cytokines are involved in this process. This review addresses current concepts of atherogenesis and focuses on alterations of adhesion molecule and cytokine expression and their regulation in diabetic patients. Molecules are being discussed in both the normoglycemic and hyperglycemic states, with a focus on their atherogenic role in diabetes mellitus. Understanding the mechanisms that underlie disease progression will help to identify high-risk patients, which is a prerequisite for new treatment strategies aiming at an attenuation of disease progression in diabetic patients.