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Hai HB, Cattrall JWS, Hao NV, Van HMT, Thuy DB, Nhat PTH, Khanh PNQ, Duong HTH, Duong TD, Lu P, Phuong LT, Greeff H, Zhu T, Yen LM, Clifton D, Thwaites CL. Heart Rate Variability Measured from Wearable Devices as a Marker of Disease Severity in Tetanus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2024; 110:165-169. [PMID: 37983924 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.23-0531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetanus is a disease associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Heart rate variability (HRV) is an objective clinical marker with potential value in tetanus. This study aimed to investigate the use of wearable devices to collect HRV data and the relationship between HRV and tetanus severity. Data were collected from 110 patients admitted to the intensive care unit in a tertiary hospital in Vietnam. HRV indices were calculated from 5-minute segments of 24-hour electrocardiogram recordings collected using wearable devices. HRV was found to be inversely related to disease severity. The standard deviation of NN intervals and interquartile range of RR intervals (IRRR) were significantly associated with the presence of muscle spasms; low frequency (LF) and high frequency (HF) indices were significantly associated with severe respiratory compromise; and the standard deviation of differences between adjacent NN intervals, root mean square of successive differences between normal heartbeats, LF to HF ratio, total frequency power, and IRRR, were significantly associated with autonomic nervous system dysfunction. The findings support the potential value of HRV as a marker for tetanus severity, identifying specific indices associated with clinical severity thresholds. Data were recorded using wearable devices, demonstrating this approach in resource-limited settings where most tetanus occurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho Bich Hai
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Jonathan W S Cattrall
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Nguyen Van Hao
- Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- University Medicine and Pharmacy, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | | | | | | | | | - Ha Thi Hai Duong
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Tran Duc Duong
- Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Ping Lu
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Le Thanh Phuong
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Heloise Greeff
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Tingting Zhu
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Lam Minh Yen
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - David Clifton
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - C Louise Thwaites
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
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Lu P, Creagh AP, Lu HY, Hai HB, Thwaites L, Clifton DA. 2D-WinSpatt-Net: A Dual Spatial Self-Attention Vision Transformer Boosts Classification of Tetanus Severity for Patients Wearing ECG Sensors in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:7705. [PMID: 37765761 PMCID: PMC10535235 DOI: 10.3390/s23187705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Tetanus is a life-threatening bacterial infection that is often prevalent in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC), Vietnam included. Tetanus affects the nervous system, leading to muscle stiffness and spasms. Moreover, severe tetanus is associated with autonomic nervous system (ANS) dysfunction. To ensure early detection and effective management of ANS dysfunction, patients require continuous monitoring of vital signs using bedside monitors. Wearable electrocardiogram (ECG) sensors offer a more cost-effective and user-friendly alternative to bedside monitors. Machine learning-based ECG analysis can be a valuable resource for classifying tetanus severity; however, using existing ECG signal analysis is excessively time-consuming. Due to the fixed-sized kernel filters used in traditional convolutional neural networks (CNNs), they are limited in their ability to capture global context information. In this work, we propose a 2D-WinSpatt-Net, which is a novel Vision Transformer that contains both local spatial window self-attention and global spatial self-attention mechanisms. The 2D-WinSpatt-Net boosts the classification of tetanus severity in intensive-care settings for LMIC using wearable ECG sensors. The time series imaging-continuous wavelet transforms-is transformed from a one-dimensional ECG signal and input to the proposed 2D-WinSpatt-Net. In the classification of tetanus severity levels, 2D-WinSpatt-Net surpasses state-of-the-art methods in terms of performance and accuracy. It achieves remarkable results with an F1 score of 0.88 ± 0.00, precision of 0.92 ± 0.02, recall of 0.85 ± 0.01, specificity of 0.96 ± 0.01, accuracy of 0.93 ± 0.02 and AUC of 0.90 ± 0.00.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Lu
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK
| | - Andrew P. Creagh
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK
| | - Huiqi Y. Lu
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK
| | - Ho Bich Hai
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | | | - Louise Thwaites
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - David A. Clifton
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK
- Oxford Suzhou Centre for Advanced Research, Suzhou 215123, China
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3
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Pose F, Ciarrocchi N, Videla C, Redelico FO. Permutation Entropy Analysis to Intracranial Hypertension from a Porcine Model. ENTROPY (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 25:267. [PMID: 36832634 PMCID: PMC9955102 DOI: 10.3390/e25020267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring is commonly used in the follow-up of patients in intensive care units, but only a small part of the information available in the ICP time series is exploited. One of the most important features to guide patient follow-up and treatment is intracranial compliance. We propose using permutation entropy (PE) as a method to extract non-obvious information from the ICP curve. We analyzed the results of a pig experiment with sliding windows of 3600 samples and 1000 displacement samples, and estimated their respective PEs, their associated probability distributions, and the number of missing patterns (NMP). We observed that the behavior of PE is inverse to that of ICP, in addition to the fact that NMP appears as a surrogate for intracranial compliance. In lesion-free periods, PE is usually greater than 0.3, and normalized NMP is less than 90% and p(s1)>p(s720). Any deviation from these values could be a possible warning of altered neurophysiology. In the terminal phases of the lesion, the normalized NMP is higher than 95%, and PE is not sensitive to changes in ICP and p(s720)>p(s1). The results show that it could be used for real-time patient monitoring or as input for a machine learning tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Pose
- Instituto de Medicina Traslacional e Ingeniería Biomédica, CONICET, Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Instituto Universitario del Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires C1199ABB, Argentina
| | - Nicolas Ciarrocchi
- Servicio de Terapia Intensiva de Adultos, Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires C1199ABB, Argentina
| | - Carlos Videla
- Servicio de Terapia Intensiva de Adultos, Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires C1199ABB, Argentina
| | - Francisco O. Redelico
- Instituto de Medicina Traslacional e Ingeniería Biomédica, CONICET, Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Instituto Universitario del Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires C1199ABB, Argentina
- Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Bernal B1876BXD, Argentina
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Le VKD, Ho HB, Karolcik S, Hernandez B, Greeff H, Nguyen VH, Phan NQK, Le TP, Thwaites L, Georgiou P, Clifton D. vital_sqi: A Python package for physiological signal quality control. Front Physiol 2022; 13:1020458. [PMID: 36439252 PMCID: PMC9692103 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1020458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Electrocardiogram (ECG) and photoplethysmogram (PPG) are commonly used to determine the vital signs of heart rate, respiratory rate, and oxygen saturation in patient monitoring. In addition to simple observation of those summarized indexes, waveform signals can be analyzed to provide deeper insights into disease pathophysiology and support clinical decisions. Such data, generated from continuous patient monitoring from both conventional bedside and low-cost wearable monitors, are increasingly accessible. However, the recorded waveforms suffer from considerable noise and artifacts and, hence, are not necessarily used prior to certain quality control (QC) measures, especially by those with limited programming experience. Various signal quality indices (SQIs) have been proposed to indicate signal quality. To facilitate and harmonize a wider usage of SQIs in practice, we present a Python package, named vital_sqi, which provides a unified interface to the state-of-the-art SQIs for ECG and PPG signals. The vital_sqi package provides with seven different peak detectors and access to more than 70 SQIs by using different settings. The vital_sqi package is designed with pipelines and graphical user interfaces to enable users of various programming fluency to use the package. Multiple SQI extraction pipelines can take the PPG and ECG waveforms and generate a bespoke SQI table. As these SQI scores represent the signal features, they can be input in any quality classifier. The package provides functions to build simple rule-based decision systems for signal segment quality classification using user-defined SQI thresholds. An experiment with a carefully annotated PPG dataset suggests thresholds for relevant PPG SQIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Van-Khoa D. Le
- Oxford University Clinicial Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- *Correspondence: Van-Khoa D. Le,
| | - Hai Bich Ho
- Oxford University Clinicial Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Stefan Karolcik
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Bernard Hernandez
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Heloise Greeff
- Department of Engineering Science, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Van Hao Nguyen
- Hospital of Tropical Diseases, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | | | - Thanh Phuong Le
- Oxford University Clinicial Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Louise Thwaites
- Oxford University Clinicial Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Pantelis Georgiou
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - David Clifton
- Department of Engineering Science, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Lu P, Ghiasi S, Hagenah J, Hai HB, Hao NV, Khanh PNQ, Khoa LDV, Thwaites L, Clifton DA, Zhu T. Classification of Tetanus Severity in Intensive-Care Settings for Low-Income Countries Using Wearable Sensing. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:6554. [PMID: 36081013 PMCID: PMC9460354 DOI: 10.3390/s22176554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Infectious diseases remain a common problem in low- and middle-income countries, including in Vietnam. Tetanus is a severe infectious disease characterized by muscle spasms and complicated by autonomic nervous system dysfunction in severe cases. Patients require careful monitoring using electrocardiograms (ECGs) to detect deterioration and the onset of autonomic nervous system dysfunction as early as possible. Machine learning analysis of ECG has been shown of extra value in predicting tetanus severity, however any additional ECG signal analysis places a high demand on time-limited hospital staff and requires specialist equipment. Therefore, we present a novel approach to tetanus monitoring from low-cost wearable sensors combined with a deep-learning-based automatic severity detection. This approach can automatically triage tetanus patients and reduce the burden on hospital staff. In this study, we propose a two-dimensional (2D) convolutional neural network with a channel-wise attention mechanism for the binary classification of ECG signals. According to the Ablett classification of tetanus severity, we define grades 1 and 2 as mild tetanus and grades 3 and 4 as severe tetanus. The one-dimensional ECG time series signals are transformed into 2D spectrograms. The 2D attention-based network is designed to extract the features from the input spectrograms. Experiments demonstrate a promising performance for the proposed method in tetanus classification with an F1 score of 0.79 ± 0.03, precision of 0.78 ± 0.08, recall of 0.82 ± 0.05, specificity of 0.85 ± 0.08, accuracy of 0.84 ± 0.04 and AUC of 0.84 ± 0.03.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Lu
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK
| | - Shadi Ghiasi
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK
| | - Jannis Hagenah
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK
| | - Ho Bich Hai
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - Nguyen Van Hao
- Hospital of Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | | | - Le Dinh Van Khoa
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | | | - Louise Thwaites
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - David A. Clifton
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK
- Hthe Oxford Suzhou Centre for Advanced Research, University of Oxford, Suzhou Dushu Lake Science and Education Innovation District, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Tingting Zhu
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK
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Modern Machine-Learning Predictive Models for Diagnosing Infectious Diseases. COMPUTATIONAL AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS IN MEDICINE 2022; 2022:6902321. [PMID: 35693267 PMCID: PMC9185172 DOI: 10.1155/2022/6902321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 04/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Controlling infectious diseases is a major health priority because they can spread and infect humans, thus evolving into epidemics or pandemics. Therefore, early detection of infectious diseases is a significant need, and many researchers have developed models to diagnose them in the early stages. This paper reviewed research articles for recent machine-learning (ML) algorithms applied to infectious disease diagnosis. We searched the Web of Science, ScienceDirect, PubMed, Springer, and IEEE databases from 2015 to 2022, identified the pros and cons of the reviewed ML models, and discussed the possible recommendations to advance the studies in this field. We found that most of the articles used small datasets, and few of them used real-time data. Our results demonstrated that a suitable ML technique depends on the nature of the dataset and the desired goal. Moreover, heterogeneous data could ensure the model's generalization, while big data, many features, and a hybrid model will increase the resulting performance. Furthermore, using other techniques such as deep learning and NLP to extract vast features from unstructured data is a powerful approach to enhancing the performance of ML diagnostic models.
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Ciarrocchi NM, Pose F, Saez P, Garcia MDC, Padilla F, Pedro Plou, Hem S, Karippacheril JG, Gutiérrez AF, Redelico FO. Reversible focal intracranial hypertension swine model with continuous multimodal neuromonitoring. J Neurosci Methods 2022; 373:109561. [PMID: 35301006 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2022.109561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intracranial hypertension (HI) is associated with worse neurological outcomes and higher mortality. Although there are several experimental models of HI, in this article we present a reproducible, reversible, and reliable model of intracranial hypertension, with continuous multimodal monitoring. NEW METHOD A reversible intracranial hypertension model in swine with multimodal monitoring including intracranial pressure, arterial blood pressure, heart rate variation, brain tissue oxygenation, and electroencephalogram is developed to understand the relationship of ICP and EEG. By inflating and deflating a balloon, located 20 mm anterior to the coronal suture and a 15 mm sagittal suture, we generate intracranial hypertension events and simultaneously measure intracranial pressure and oxygenation in the contralateral hemisphere and the EEG, simulating the usual configuration in humans. RESULTS We completed 5 experiments and in all of them, we were able to complete at least 6 events of intracranial hypertension in a stable and safe way. For events of 20-40 mmHg of ICP we need an median (IQR) of 4.2 (3.64) ml of saline solution into the Foley balloon, a median (IQR) infusion time of 226 (185) second in each event and for events of 40-50 mmHg of ICP we need a median (IQR) of 5.1 (4.66) ml of saline solution, a median (IQR) infusion time of 280 (48) seconds and a median (IQR). The median (IQR) maintenance time was 352 (77) seconds and 392 (166) seconds for 20-40 mmHg and 40-50 mmHg of ICP, respectively. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHOD(S) Existing methods do not include EEG measures and do not present the reversibility of intracranial hypertension. CONCLUSIONS Our model is fully reproducible, it is capable of generating reversible focal intracranial hypertension through strict control of the injected volume, it is possible to generate different infusion rates of the volume in the balloon, in order to generate different scenarios, the data obtained are sufficient to determine the brain complacency in real time. and useful for understanding the pathophysiology of ICP and the relationship between ICP (CPP) and EEG.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fernando Pose
- Instituto de Medicina Traslacional e Ingeniería Biomédica, Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Instituto Universitario del Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Perón 4190 - (C1199ABB) Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Pablo Saez
- Servicio de Neurología, Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | - Fernando Padilla
- Servicio de Neurocirugía, Hopsital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Pedro Plou
- Servicio de Neurocirugía, Hopsital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Santiago Hem
- Servicio de Neurocirugía, Hopsital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | | | - Francisco O Redelico
- Instituto de Medicina Traslacional e Ingeniería Biomédica, Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Instituto Universitario del Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Perón 4190 - (C1199ABB) Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Roque Sáenz Peña 352 - (B1876BXD) Bernal, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Chanh HQ, Trieu HT, Vuong HNT, Hung TK, Phan TQ, Campbell J, Pley C, Yacoub S. Novel Clinical Monitoring Approaches for Reemergence of Diphtheria Myocarditis, Vietnam. Emerg Infect Dis 2022; 28:282-290. [PMID: 35075995 PMCID: PMC8798685 DOI: 10.3201/eid2802.210555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Diphtheria is a life-threatening, vaccine-preventable disease caused by toxigenic Corynebacterium bacterial species that continues to cause substantial disease and death worldwide, particularly in vulnerable populations. Further outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases are forecast because of health service disruptions caused by the coronavirus disease pandemic. Diphtheria causes a spectrum of clinical disease, ranging from cutaneous forms to severe respiratory infections with systemic complications, including cardiac and neurologic. In this synopsis, we describe a case of oropharyngeal diphtheria in a 7-year-old boy in Vietnam who experienced severe myocarditis complications. We also review the cardiac complications of diphtheria and discuss how noninvasive bedside imaging technologies to monitor myocardial function and hemodynamic parameters can help improve the management of this neglected infectious disease.
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Tadesse GA, Javed H, Thanh NLN, Thi HDH, Tan LV, Thwaites L, Clifton DA, Zhu T. Multi-Modal Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases in the Developing World. IEEE J Biomed Health Inform 2020; 24:2131-2141. [PMID: 31944967 DOI: 10.1109/jbhi.2019.2959839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In low and middle income countries, infectious diseases continue to have a significant impact, particularly amongst the poorest in society. Tetanus and hand foot and mouth disease (HFMD) are two such diseases and, in both, death is associated with autonomic nervous system dysfunction (ANSD). Currently, photoplethysmogram or electrocardiogram monitoring is used to detect deterioration in these patients, however expensive clinical monitors are often required. In this study, we employ low-cost and mobile wearable devices to collect patient vital signs unobtrusively; and we develop machine learning algorithms for automatic and rapid triage of patients that provide efficient use of clinical resources. Existing methods are mainly dependent on the prior detection of clinical features with limited exploitation of multi-modal physiological data. Moreover, the latest developments in deep learning (e.g. cross-domain transfer learning) have not been sufficiently applied for infectious disease diagnosis. In this paper, we present a fusion of multi-modal physiological data to predict the severity of ANSD with a hierarchy of resource-aware decision making. First, an on-site triage process is performed using a simple classifier. Second, personalised longitudinal modelling is employed that takes the previous states of the patient into consideration. We have also employed a spectrogram representation of the physiological waveforms to exploit existing networks for cross-domain transfer learning, which avoids the laborious and data intensive process of training a network from scratch. Results show that the proposed framework has promising potential in supporting severity grading of infectious diseases in low-resources settings, such as in the developing world.
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