Treatment of diffuse proliferative lupus glomerulonephritis: a comparison of two cyclophosphamide-containing regimens

B Cell Subsets and Cellular Signatures and Disease Relapse in Lupus Nephritis

Introduction

Renal relapses adversely affect the long-term outcomes of patients with lupus nephritis (LN), but the pathogenic mechanisms remain elusive. B cell signatures of miR-148a, BACH1, BACH2, and PAX5 expression are relevant to the regulation of B lymphocyte homeostasis. It is unknown whether B cell signature is related to the relapse of LN.

Methods

We compared B lymphocyte subsets and cellular signatures during disease quiescence between LN patients with multiple relapses (MR, ≥3 LN relapses within 36 months) and those with no relapse (NR). Also, circulating B lymphocytes were isolated from treatment-naïve patients with active LN and treated with antagomir-148a in vitro to investigate the relationship between miR-148a, BACH1, BACH2, and PAX5.

Results

MR patients (n = 19), when compared with NR (n = 14), showed significantly lower percentage of circulating naïve B cells and higher memory B cell-to-naïve B cell ratio. MR patients also showed higher miR-148a levels in sera and B cells, and lower BACH1, BACH2, and PAX5 expression in naïve and memory B cells. Antagomir-148a upregulated BACH1, BACH2, and PAX5 expression, and reduced B cell proliferation upon stimulation, in naïve and memory B cells isolated from treatment-naïve active LN patients.

Conclusion

Altered B cell subsets and cellular signatures of miR-148a, BACH1, BACH2, and PAX5 may be associated with distinct patient phenotypes related to the risk of LN relapse.

[Lupus nephritis]

Systemic lupus erythematosus is the most characteristic of auto-immune disorders that can lead to tissue damage in many organs, including kidney. Lupus nephritis occurs in 10 to 40% of lupus patients. Its clinical hallmark is the appearance of a proteinuria as soon as a 0.5 g/g or 0.5 g/d threshold, which calls for a renal histological evaluation in order to determine the lupus nephritis severity and the need for specific therapy. More than half of renal biopsies lead to the diagnosis of active lupus nephritis-class III or class IV A according to the ISN/RPS classification-that are the most severe in regards to renal prognosis and mortality. Their treatment aims to their clinical remission and to the prevention of relapse with minimal adverse effects for eventually the preservation of renal function, the prevention of other irreversible damage, and the reduction of risk of death. The remission is obtained through induction therapies of which the association of high dose steroids and cyclophosphamide is the most experienced. When this association must be challenged by the prevention of side-effect, in particular infertility, mycophenolate can be given instead of cyclophosphamide. Maintenance therapy, for the prevention of relapse, consists in mycophenolate or in azathioprine, mycophenolate being the most efficient however associated with a high risk of teratogenicity. Withdrawal of maintenance therapy is possible after two to three years in absence of high risk factors of relapse of lupus nephritis, however a reliable assessment of the risk of relapse is still lacking. Only pure membranous lupus nephritis (pure class V) associated with high level proteinuria requires specific therapies that usually associates steroids and an immunosuppressive drug. However, their choice hierarchy and even the use of less immunosuppressive strategies remain to be determined in terms of benefice over risk ratios. In spite of its trigger effect on lupus activity, pregnancy can be safe and successful if scheduled in the lowest risk periods with close multidisciplinary monitoring before, during and after. When necessary, renal replacement therapy does not require specific adaptation, renal transplantation is the best option when possible, as early as possible.

Risk of adverse events from different drugs for SLE: a systematic review and network meta-analysis

Objective

The comparative safety of immunosuppressive drugs, biologicals and glucocorticoids (GC) for patients with SLE remains controversial. We aimed to investigate the specific side effects of the available SLE drugs in this population of patients.

Methods

Electronic databases were systematically searched through September 2017 for randomised trials in patients with SLE. The primary outcomes were all-cause mortality and withdrawal related to adverse events (AEs). We performed a random-effects network meta-analysis to obtain estimates for primary and secondary outcomes and presented these estimates as ORs with 95% CIs.

Results

Forty-four studies comprising 9898 participants were included in the network meta-analysis. No drug regimen was considered to be safer for reducing all-cause mortality. However, compared with cyclophosphamide, azathioprine (OR 3.04, 95% CI (1.44 to 6.42)) and cyclosporine (OR 3.28, 95% CI (1.04 to 10.35)) were significantly less safety in AE-related withdrawals, and GC was ranked lowest and led to higher withdrawal rates. Tacrolimus (TAC) was ranked high and showed a benefit in many outcomes. Biologicals and chloroquine also showed good safety in all of the available outcomes, while the beneficial effects of other immunosuppressive drugs were not substantial in different types of serious adverse events.

Conclusions

TAC is the safest strategy for patients with SLE. Biologicals and chloroquine are also fairly safe for patients with SLE. The use of other immunosuppressive drugs and GC needs to be balanced against the potential harms of different types of AEs, and the practical safety of drug combinations still requires further trials to evaluate.

Looking back to move forward: a twenty-year audit of herpes zoster in Asia-Pacific

Background

Herpes zoster (HZ) is a prevalent viral disease that inflicts substantial morbidity and associated healthcare and socioeconomic burdens. Current treatments are not fully effective, especially among the most vulnerable patients. Although widely recommended, vaccination against HZ is not routine; barriers in Asia-Pacific include long-standing neglect of adult immunisation and sparse local data. To address knowledge gaps, raise awareness, and disseminate best practice, we reviewed recent data and guidelines on HZ from the Asia-Pacific region.

Methods

We searched PubMed, Scopus, and World Health Organization databases for articles about HZ published from 1994 to 2014 by authors from Australia, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. We selected articles about epidemiology, burden, complications, comorbidities, management, prevention, and recommendations/guidelines. Internet searches retrieved additional HZ immunisation guidelines.

Results

From 4007 retrieved articles, we screened-out 1501 duplicates and excluded 1264 extraneous articles, leaving 1242 unique articles. We found guidelines on adult immunisation from Australia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, South Korea, and Thailand.

HZ epidemiology in Asia-Pacific is similar to elsewhere; incidence rises with age and peaks at around 70 years – lifetime risk is approximately one-third. Average incidence of 3–10/1000 person-years is rising at around 5% per year. The principal risk factors are immunosenescence and immunosuppression. HZ almost always causes pain, and post-herpetic neuralgia is its most common complication. Half or more of hospitalised HZ patients have post-herpetic neuralgia, secondary infections, or inflammatory sequelae that are occasionally fatal. These disease burdens severely diminish patients’ quality of life and incur heavy healthcare utilisation.

Conclusions

Several countries have abundant data on HZ, but others, especially in South-East Asia, very few. However, Asia-Pacific countries generally lack data on HZ vaccine safety, efficacy and cost-effectiveness. Physicians treating HZ and its complications in Asia-Pacific face familiar challenges but, with a vast aged population, Asia bears a unique and growing burden of disease. Given the strong rationale for prevention, most adult immunisation guidelines include HZ vaccine, yet it remains underused. We urge all stakeholders to give higher priority to adult immunisation in general and HZ in particular.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12879-017-2198-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Lupus Nephritis: Induction Therapy

Effective induction therapy is of pivotal importance in minimizing renal parenchymal damage by the active immune-mediated inflammatory processes in severe proliferative lupus nephritis. Preservation of nephron mass is prerequisite to long-term renal survival. Data from US-based studies have shown improved efficacy with induction treatment comprising corticosteroid and cyclophosphamide, compared with corticosteroid treatment alone. Data from European studies have shown similar efficacy with a modified treatment regimen, in which smaller doses of cyclophosphamide were given at weekly or fortnightly intervals over a shortened treatment duration, and the treatment related adverse effects appeared less frequent with the reduced-dose regimen. We have also reported that sequential immunosuppression with prednisolone and oral cyclophosphamide as induction followed by azathioprine maintenance was associated with a high incidence of remission and relatively favourable long-term renal outcome in Chinese patients. However, cyclophosphamide treatment is associated with considerable adverse effects, which could be potentially fatal. Mycophenolate mofetil selectively inhibits lymphocyte proliferation, and thus targets an instrumental step in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. There is accumulating evidence that the combined use of mycophenolate mofetil and corticosteroid presents an effective treatment for severe proliferative lupus nephritis in different ethnic groups, and is associated with much fewer adverse effects compared with cyclophosphamide-based regimens. Recent data from our group also demonstrate the long-term efficacy of mycophenolate mofetil in preserving renal survival, when used continuously as both induction and maintenance therapy.

Why, when and how should immunosuppressive therapy considered in patients with immunoglobulin A nephropathy?

IgA nephropathy (IgAN) is the most common primary glomerulonephritis worldwide. Lifelong mesangial deposition of IgA1 complexes subsist inflammation and nephron loss, but the complex pathogenesis in detail remains unclear. In regard to the heterogeneous course, classical immunosuppressive and specific therapeutic regimens adapted to the loss of renal function will here be discussed in addition to the essential common renal supportive therapy. Renal supportive therapy alleviates secondary, surrogate effects or sequelae on renal function and proteinuria of high intraglomerular pressure and subsequent nephrosclerosis by inhibition of the renin angiotensin system (RAASB). In patients with physiological (ΔGFR < 1·5 ml/min/year) or mild (ΔGFR 1·5-5 ml/min/year) decrease of renal function and proteinuric forms (> 1 g/day after RAASB), corticosteroids have shown a reduction of proteinuria and might protect further loss of renal function. In patients with progressive loss of renal function (ΔGFR > 3 ml/min within 3 months) or a rapidly progressive course with or without crescents in renal biopsy, cyclophosphamide with high-dose corticosteroids as induction therapy and azathioprine maintenance has proved effective in one randomized controlled study of a homogeneous cohort in loss of renal function (ΔGFR). Mycophenolic acid provided further maintenance in non-randomized trials. Differentiated, precise, larger, randomized, placebo-controlled studies focused on the loss of renal function in the heterogeneous forms of IgAN are still lacking. Prospectively, fewer toxic agents will be necessary in the treatment of IgAN.

Comparative effectiveness of immunosuppressive drugs and corticosteroids for lupus nephritis: a systematic review and network meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

There is a lack of high-quality meta-analyses and network meta-analyses of immunosuppressive drugs for lupus nephritis. Our objective was to assess the comparative benefits and harms of immunosuppressive drugs and corticosteroids in lupus nephritis.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review and network meta-analysis (NMA) of trials of immunosuppressive drugs and corticosteroids in patients with lupus nephritis. We calculated odds ratios (OR) and 95 % credible intervals (CrI).

RESULTS

Sixty-five studies that met inclusion and exclusion criteria; data were analyzed for renal remission/response (37 trials; 2697 patients), renal relapse/flare (13 studies; 1108 patients), amenorrhea/ovarian failure (eight trials; 839 patients) and cytopenia (16 trials; 2257 patients). Cyclophosphamide [CYC] low dose (LD) and CYC high-dose (HD) were less likely than mycophenolate mofetil [MMF] and azathioprine [AZA], CYC LD, CYC HD and plasmapharesis less likely than cyclosporine [CSA] to achieve renal remission/response. Tacrolimus [TAC] was more likely than CYC LD to achieve renal remission/response. MMF and CYC were associated with a lower odds of renal relapse/flare compared to PRED and MMF was associated with a lower rate of renal relapse/flare than AZA. CYC was more likely than MMF and PRED to be associated with amenorrhea/ovarian failure. Compared to MMF, CYC, AZA, CYC LD, and CYC HD were associated with a higher risk of cytopenia.

CONCLUSIONS

In this systematic review and NMA, we found important differences between immunosuppressives used for the treatment of lupus nephritis. Patients and physicians can use this information for detailed informed consent in a patient-centered approach. Study limitations of between-study clinical heterogeneity and small sample size with type II error must be considered when interpreting these findings.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO

CRD42016032965.

Risk of serious infections with immunosuppressive drugs and glucocorticoids for lupus nephritis: a systematic review and network meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

To perform a systematic review and network meta-analysis (NMA) to compare the risk of serious infections with immunosuppressive medications and glucocorticoids in lupus nephritis.

METHODS

A trained librarian performed two searches: (1) PubMed for all lupus nephritis trials from the end dates for the systematic review for the 2012 American College of Rheumatology (ACR) lupus nephritis treatment guidelines and the 2012 Cochrane Systematic Review on treatments for lupus nephritis, to September 2013; and (2) PubMed and SCOPUS for all lupus trials (excluding lupus nephritis) from inception to February 2014, to obtain additional trials for harms data in any lupus patient. The search was updated to May 2016. Duplicate title/abstract review and duplicate data abstractions by two abstractors independently was performed for all eligible studies, including those studies abstracted for the 2012 ACR lupus nephritis treatment guidelines and the 2012 Cochrane Systematic Review on lupus nephritis treatments. We performed a systematic review and a Bayesian NMA, including randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of immunosuppressive drugs or glucocorticoids in patients with lupus nephritis assessing serious infection risk. Markov chain Monte Carlo methods were used to model 95 % credible intervals (CrI). Sensitivity analyses examined the robustness of estimates.

RESULTS

A total of 32 RCTs with 2611 patients provided data. There were 26 two-arm, five three-arm, and one four-arm trials. We found that tacrolimus was associated with significantly lower risk of serious infections compared to glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide (CYC), mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), and azathioprine (AZA) with odds ratios (95 % CrI) of 0.33 (0.12-0.88), 0.37 (0.15-0.87), 0.340 (0.18-0.81), and 0.32 (0.12-0.81), respectively. Conversely, CYC low dose (LD), CYC high dose (HD), and HD glucocorticoids were associated with higher odds of serious infections compared to tacrolimus, ranging from 4.84 to 12.83. We also found that MMF followed by AZA (MMF-AZA) was associated with significantly lower risk of serious infections as compared to CYC LD, CYC HD, CYC-AZA, or HD glucocorticoids with odds ratios (95 % CrI) of 0.09 (0.01-0.76), 0.07 (0.01-0.54), 0.14 (0.02-0.71), and 0.03 (0.00-0.56), respectively. Estimates were similar to pair-wise meta-analyses. Sensitivity analyses that varied estimate (odds ratio vs. Peto's odds ratio), method (random vs. fixed effects model), data (sepsis vs. serious infection data; exclusion of observational studies), treatment grouping (CYC and CYC HD as a combined treatment group vs. separate), made little/no difference to these estimates.

CONCLUSIONS

Tacrolimus and MMF-AZA combination were associated with lower risk of serious infections compared to other immunosuppressive drugs or glucocorticoids for lupus nephritis. In conjunction with comparative efficacy data, these data can help patients make informed decisions about treatment options for lupus nephritis.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION

CRD42016032965.

Treatments for Lupus Nephritis: A Systematic Review and Network Metaanalysis

OBJECTIVE

To compare benefits and harms of lupus nephritis (LN) induction and maintenance treatments.

METHODS

We performed a systematic review and Bayesian network metaanalyses of randomized controlled trials (RCT) of immunosuppressive drugs or corticosteroids (CS) in LN. OR and 95% credible intervals (CrI) were calculated.

RESULTS

There were 65 RCT that met inclusion and exclusion criteria. Significantly lower risk of endstage renal disease (ESRD; 17 studies) was seen with cyclophosphamide (CYC; OR 0.49, 95% CrI 0.25-0.92) or CYC + azathioprine (AZA; OR 0.18, 95% CrI 0.05-0.57) compared with standard-dose CS, and with high-dose (HD) CYC (OR 0.16, 95% CrI 0.03-0.61) or CYC + AZA (OR 0.10, 95% CrI 0.03-0.34) compared with HD CS. HD CS was associated with higher risk of ESRD compared with CYC (OR 3.59, 95% CrI 1.30-9.86), AZA (OR 2.93, 95% CrI 1.08-8.10), or mycophenolate mofetil (MMF; OR 7.05, 95% CrI 1.66-31.91). Compared with CS, a significantly higher proportion of patients had renal response (14 studies) when treated with CYC (OR 1.98, 95% CrI 1.13-3.52), MMF (OR 2.42, 95% CrI 1.27-4.74), or tacrolimus (TAC; OR 4.20, 95% CrI 1.29-13.68). No differences were noted for the risk of malignancy (15 studies). The risk of herpes zoster (17 studies) was as follows: OR (95% CrI) MMF versus CS 4.38 (1.02-23.87), CYC versus CS 6.64 (1.97-25.71), TAC versus CS 9.11 (1.13-70.99), and CYC + AZA versus CS 8.46 (1.99-43.61).

CONCLUSION

Renal benefits and the risk of herpes zoster were higher for immunosuppressive drugs versus CS. Data on relative and absolute differences are now available, which can be incorporated into patient-physician discussions related to systemic lupus erythematosus medication use.

Lupus Around the World

This study demonstrates demographic, clinical and laboratory characteristics with special reference to infections in Saudi patients with SLE. One-hundred and ninety-nine patients with SLE treated at Riyadh Armed Forces Hospital, Saudi Arabia over a period of 15 years (1990—2005) were retrospectively reviewed. There were 162 females and 37 males (4.4 : 1) with an average age of 35 years at onset of disease. Duration of diseases ranged from one to 23 years with a mean of 7.23 years. Some of the clinical characteristics of SLE patients observed were nephritis (53.7%), fever (53.26%), neuropsychological disorder (36.18%), malar/butterfly rash (27.6%), pulmonary disorder (22.6%), photosensitivity (21.6%), cardiac involvement (21.1%) and oral ulcers (19.09%). Infection was the major complication with 58.79% of SLE patient having suffered from various infections. A total of 22 species of pathogens including gram positive and gram negative bacteria, viruses and fungi were isolated from 117 SLE patients. Single to multiple episode of infection with various pathogens were recorded however, majority of patients harboured one or two species of pathogens. Bacterial infection was predominant (78.6%) followed by viral (28.2%) and fungal (28.2%) infections. Forty-four percent of SLE patients were found to be infected with organisms classified as opportunistic. The high incidence of infections in SLE patients may be attributed to the multiple intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors including deficiency of complement (C3 and C4), disease activity, renal impairment, use of glucocorticoid and cytotoxic drugs. It is concluded that more judicious use of corticosteroids and other immunosuppressive agents will be critical to limit the infections in SLE and a high alert and close monitoring of patients will ensure optimal patient outcome, both in terms of morbidity and mortality. Lupus (2007) 16, 755—763.

Cyclophosphamide in lupus nephritis

Although not licensed for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), cyclophosphamide (CYC) has become over the last two decades the most widely prescribed cytotoxic drug for lupus nephritis (LN). A PubMed search using ‘lupus nephritis and cyclophosphamide’ as key words identifies not less than 454 papers on the topic. This should, however, not disguise the fact that its use is still controversial and that many issues remain debated, such as the timing and length of treatment, the route of administration and the ideal dosage. In this review, the different CYC regimes on the basis of the results of prospective randomized trials performed in LN patients is discussed.

Lupus nephritis: When and how often to biopsy and what does it mean?

Renal disease is a frequent complication of SLE which can lead to significant illness and even death. Today, a baseline renal biopsy is highly recommended for all subjects with evidence of lupus nephritis. Biopsy allows the clinician to recognize and classify different forms of autoimmune lupus glomerulonephritis, and to detect other glomerular diseases with variable pathogenesis which are not directly related to autoimmune reactivity, such as lupus podocytopathy. Moreover, not only glomerular diseases, but other severe forms of renal involvement, such as tubulo-interstitial nephritis or thrombotic microangiopathy may be detected by biopsy in lupus patients. Thus, an accurate definition of the nature and severity of renal involvement is mandatory to assess the possible risk of progression and to establish an appropriate treatment. The indications to repeat biopsy are more controversial. Some physicians recommend protocol biopsies to recognize the possible transformation from one class to another one, or to identify silent progression of renal disease, others feel that good clinical monitoring is sufficient to assess prognosis and to make therapeutic decisions. At any rate, although any decision should always be taken by considering the clinical conditions of the patient, there are no doubts that repeat renal biopsy may represent a useful tool in difficult cases to evaluate the response to therapy, to modulate the intensity of treatment, and to predict the long-term renal outcome both in quiescent lupus and in flares of activity.

Isolated Hematuria and Sterile Pyuria May Indicate Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Activity

Objective.

To identify patients presenting with isolated hematuria and/or pyuria in the absence of other systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) disease activity, describe their demographics, and determine whether they present with evidence of SLE flare in a period adjacent to the presentation.

Methods.

We studied patients followed at the University of Toronto Lupus Clinic between 1970 and 2012. An episode of isolated hematuria (> 5 red blood cells per high power field) and/or pyuria (> 5 white blood cells per high power field) was defined as 2 consecutive visits with these findings in the absence of other concurrent SLE manifestations such as proteinuria, casts, or azotemia. We then excluded patients whose findings might be explained by urinary tract infections, menstruation, urolithiasis, and/or anticoagulation. Only patients presenting with no other SLE disease activity were included.

Results.

Isolated hematuria and/or pyuria were identified in 49 patients, of whom 17 were excluded according to the criteria above, leaving 32. Twenty-four patients had another renal manifestation 1 year before and/or after the occurrence; 27 had a non-renal manifestation 1 year before and/or after the occurrence; 3 patients had a biopsy in the same time frame, all with evidence of active lupus nephritis. Therefore the majority of patients with an occurrence of isolated hematuria and/or pyuria had evidence of renal or other non-renal SLE disease activity at a time adjacent to this presentation.

Conclusion.

Although not proven, our results suggest that these manifestations were associated with SLE activity, either before or after the episode, and therefore may represent a phase of active disease.

Efficacy of long-term maintenance therapy with mycophenolate mofetil in lupus nephritis

Background

Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) has long been used to manage lupus nephritis. Despite research on its long-term efficacy, it is still warranted to conduct further investigation regarding its indications, safety and outcome. This study was intended to evaluate our proposed protocol in maintenance therapy with MMF.

Twenty-four lupus nephritis patients were registered prior to their receiving 3–6 month induction therapy with monthly iv pulses of cyclophosphamide (CYC), followed by 24 month maintenance therapy using MMF and steroid. We defined end points as achievement of complete and partial remission, relapse, refractory to therapy as well as end stage renal disease (ESRD) and death. Friedman and repeated measurement tests were used to assess the effect of treatment on parameters over time.

Complete renal remission was achieved in 79.16% until the end of the last follow up with an average period of 12.45 ± 7.37 months since treatment commenced. Significant statistical differences were seen regarding proteinuria, hematuria, leukocyturia, plasma creatinine, C3, C4 before and after therapy (P < 0.05): plasma creatinine and proteinurea falling from 0.96 ± 0.65 to 0.75 ± 0.19 mg/dl (P < 0.14) and from 1.64 ± 1.12 to 0.27 ± 0.60 gr/24 h (P < 0.001). By the end of 24-month, 95.8% of patients had been in remission. Four episodes of relapse ended in remission followed by retreatment. No life-threatening side effects were observed in 66.6% of patients with fourteen cases of infection (58.3%). None of them developed ESRD.

Maintenance therapy with MMF was shown to yield favorable outcome with minimal complications, in treating lupus nephritis (IRCT2012071710313N1).

Short-interval lower-dose intravenous cyclophosphamide as induction and maintenance therapy for lupus nephritis: a prospective observational study

Cyclophosphamide (CYC) has long been considered a gold standard in inducing renal remission and preventing renal flares for patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). However, the rational use of CYC has not reached a consensus, such as the timing and length of treatment, the route of administration, and the ideal dosage. The objective of this study was to assess the efficacy and safety of short-interval lower-dose (SILD) intravenous (IV) CYC in the treatment of SLE. A total of 225 patients with lupus nephritis were randomly assigned to a 1-year trial, either the SILD group (12 fortnightly pulses at a fixed dose of 400 mg followed by 6 monthly pulses) or high-dose (HD) group (6 monthly pulses followed by two quarterly pulses at a dose of 0.5~1.0 g/m(2)). At 6 months of treatment, 28 % (30/107) of patients in the SILD group reached a complete remission (CR), and 51.4 % (55/107) were in partial remission (PR), as compared with 32.7 % (35/107) and 45.8 % (49/107) in the HD group, respectively. Serum albumin, 24-h urinary protein, and the scores of disease activity were significantly improved in both groups at 6 months and maintained at the end of clinical trial. However, the SILD group showed much less menstrual disturbances (11.5 %), gastrointestinal adverse effects (5.3 %), and leukopenia (9.7 %) than the HD group (28.6, 26.8, and 19.8 %, respectively) at the end of clinical trial. The efficacy of the short-interval lower-dose (SILD) IV CYC regimen in the treatment of lupus nephritis is equivalent to that of the high-dose (HD) regimen, whereas the incidence of adverse events is much lower in the SILD group.

Calcineurin inhibitors may be a reasonable alternative to cyclophosphamide in the induction treatment of active lupus nephritis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Although the accepted standard of care during the induction treatment of active lupus nephritis (LN) has been cyclophosphamide (CYC), recent trials suggest that calcineurin inhibitors (CNIs), which include cyclosporine A (CsA) and tacrolimus (TAC), may be just as, or even more, effective and less toxic than CYC. A systematic review and meta-analysis were performed to evaluate the clinical effects of CNIs on active LN compared with those of CYC. In the present study, clinical trials that compared CNIs with CYC in the induction therapy of active LN were searched in the Cochrane Library, Ovid and PubMed databases. The clinical data on renal remission and side-effects were collected and analyzed. The relative risk (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. As a result, six controlled trials involving 265 patients were included in the meta-analysis, four of which compared TAC (treatment group) with CYC (control group), and the other two compared CsA (treatment group) with CYC (control group). CNIs were superior to CYC for higher complete remission (RR=1.56, 95% CI 1.14-2.15, Z=2.74, P=0.006) and better overall response/total remission (RR=1.23, 95% CI 1.07-1.42, Z=2.87, P=0.004) and had fewer side-effects. Among the CNIs, TAC demonstrated more favorable results than CsA. Therefore, it was concluded that CNIs may be a reasonable alternative to CYC in the induction treatment of active LN. However, large-scale, multicenter, well-designed clinical trials should be adopted to further confirm this conclusion.

Overview of lupus nephritis management guidelines and perspective from Asia

Lupus nephritis (LN) is a common and important manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Evidence suggests higher rates of lupus renal involvement in Asian populations, and maybe more severe nephritis, compared with other racial or ethnic groups. The management of LN has evolved considerably over the past three decades, based on observations from clinical studies that investigated different immunosuppressive agents including corticosteroids, cyclophosphamide, azathioprine, mycophenolic acid, calcineurin inhibitors and novel biologic therapies. This is accompanied by improvements in both the short-term treatment response rate and long-term renal function preservation. Treatment guidelines for LN have recently been issued by rheumatology and nephrology communities in U.S.A. and Europe. In view of the racial difference in disease manifestation and response to therapy, and the substantial disease burden in Asia, a panel of 15 nephrologists and rheumatologists from different Asian regions with extensive experience in lupus nephritis - the Steering Group for the Asian Lupus Nephritis Network (ALNN) - met and discussed the management of lupus nephritis in Asian patients. The group has also reviewed and deliberated on the recently published recommendations from other parts of the world. This manuscript summarizes the discussions by the group and presents consensus views on the clinical management and treatment of adult Asian patients with LN, taking into account both the available evidence and expert opinion in areas where evidence remains to be sought.

Overview of lupus nephritis management guidelines and perspective from Asia

Lupus nephritis (LN) is a common and important manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Evidence suggests higher rates of lupus renal involvement in Asian populations, and maybe more severe nephritis, compared with other racial or ethnic groups. The management of LN has evolved considerably over the past three decades, based on observations from clinical studies that investigated different immunosuppressive agents including corticosteroids, cyclophosphamide, azathioprine, mycophenolic acid, calcineurin inhibitors and novel biologic therapies. This is accompanied by improvements in both the short-term treatment response rate and long-term renal function preservation. Treatment guidelines for LN have recently been issued by rheumatology and nephrology communities in U.S.A. and Europe. In view of the racial difference in disease manifestation and response to therapy, and the substantial disease burden in Asia, a panel of 15 nephrologists and rheumatologists from different Asian regions with extensive experience in lupus nephritis - the Steering Group for the Asian Lupus Nephritis Network (ALNN) - met and discussed the management of lupus nephritis in Asian patients. The group has also reviewed and deliberated on the recently published recommendations from other parts of the world. This manuscript summarizes the discussions by the group and presents consensus views on the clinical management and treatment of adult Asian patients with LN, taking into account both the available evidence and expert opinion in areas where evidence remains to be sought.

A cost-utility analysis of alternative drug regimens for newly diagnosed severe lupus nephritis patients in Thailand

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to assess the value of four drug regimens for newly diagnosed severe LN from a societal perspective.

METHODS

A model-based cost-utility analysis was devised to measure lifetime costs and health outcomes. Current treatment options consisting of different combinations of i.v. CYC, AZA and MMF were compared with a baseline regimen of i.v. CYC in both the induction and maintenance phases. Resource use and costs were derived from medical records reviews and databases. Event rates were elicited from randomized controlled trials. Relative treatment effects were obtained from meta-analyses. Health utilities were obtained from a real cohort of patients to estimate the outcome of quality-adjusted life years.

RESULTS

It was found that a treatment regimen that combined i.v. CYC in the induction phase with AZA in the maintenance phase was cost saving compared with the baseline regimen. Treatment with i.v. CYC in the induction phase and MMF in the maintenance phase and treatment with MMF in the induction phase and a reduced dose of the same in the maintenance phase turned out to be a negatively dominated regimen.

CONCLUSION

In the Thai context, the combination of i.v. CYC for the induction phase followed by AZA for the maintenance phase should be considered as the first-line therapy for newly diagnosed severe LN, as it seems to be the most cost-saving regimen.

Understanding lupus nephritis: diagnosis, management, and treatment options

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) predominantly affects women in their reproductive years. Renal disease (glomerulonephritis) is one of the most frequent and serious manifestations of SLE. Of the various histological types of lupus glomerulonephritis, diffuse proliferative nephritis carries the worst prognosis. Combined with high-dose prednisone, mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) has emerged as a first-line immunosuppressive treatment, although data regarding the efficacy of MMF on the long-term preservation of renal function are forthcoming. Cyclophosphamide is reserved for more severe forms of lupus nephritis, such as crescentic glomerulonephritis with rapidly deteriorating renal function, patients with significant renal function impairment at presentation, and refractory renal disease. Evidence for the calcineurin inhibitors in the treatment of lupus nephritis is weaker, and it concerns patients who are intolerant or recalcitrant to other agents. While further controlled trials are mandatory, B cell modulation therapies, such as rituximab, belimumab and epratuzumab are confined to refractory disease. Non-immunosuppressive measures, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, vigorous blood pressure control, prevention and treatment of hyperlipidemia and osteoporosis, are equally important.

Mycophenolate mofetil as maintenance therapy for proliferative lupus nephritis: a long-term observational prospective study

Introduction

While the role of mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) in the management of lupus nephritis has been increasingly recognized, limited information is available regarding its efficacy and safety as a long-term maintenance treatment. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety profile of MMF as maintenance therapy for proliferative lupus nephritis.

Methods

Thirty-three consecutive patients with proliferative lupus nephritis received induction therapy with five to seven monthly intravenous (iv) pulses of cyclophosphamide (CYC) plus iv steroids followed by oral MMF 2 g/day as maintenance therapy for a median time of 29 months (range 9 to 71 months). Primary end points were the achievement of renal remission, complete renal remission, disease remission - renal and extrarenal -, the occurrence of renal relapse, chronic renal failure and death. Secondary end points were the extrarenal disease activity and drug adverse events. The clinical and laboratory parameters were compared during follow-up by means of nonparametric statistical tests. Time to event analysis was performed according to the Kaplan-Meier method.

Results

A significant improvement of all renal parameters was observed at the end of the induction treatment and at the latest follow-up compared to baseline. The rate of patients achieving renal remission until the end of follow-up was 73%, whereas that of complete renal remission was 58%. The median survival times in the Kaplan-Meier analyses were 7 and 16 months, respectively. Remission was maintained in all but four (12%) patients who relapsed within 19 to 39 months after initial response. At the end of follow-up, 51% of the patients had reached disease remission. The median survival time of disease remission was 18 months. Extrarenal manifestations were well controlled in most of the patients. In one patient receiving MMF, extrarenal activity led to treatment discontinuation. Non life-threatening drug adverse events developed in 18 patients (58%) and included infections, amenorrhea, myelotoxicity, gastrointestinal complications, hypercholesterolemia, alopecia and drug intolerance. None of the patients developed chronic renal insufficiency or died from any cause.

Conclusions

MMF appeared to be efficacious and safe as maintenance treatment for proliferative lupus nephritis.

Review: Lupus nephritis: pathologic features, epidemiology and a guide to therapeutic decisions

Systemic lupus erythematosus may present with renal manifestations that frequently are difficult to categorize and lupus nephritis is an important predictor of poor outcome. The type and spectrum of renal injury may remain undiagnosed until full-blown nephritic and/or nephrotic syndrome appear with increased risk of end-stage renal disease. These abnormalities occur within the first few years after the diagnosis of lupus is made on clinical grounds and with the support of laboratory tests in high risk patients. An early renal biopsy is helpful in patients with an abnormal urinalysis and/or reduced glomerular filtration rate and the results form the basis for therapeutic decisions. The biopsy also provides vital prognostic information based on histological categorization of different types of lupus nephritis, the degree of activity, chronicity and the immunopathogenesis. In the current armamentarium, the use of cyclophosphamide and azathioprine and recently mycophenolate mofetil, reduce morbidity and maintenance therapies reduce the risk of end-stage renal disease. Clinical trials underway promise new, effective and safe immunosuppressive regimens for the treatment of proliferative lupus nephritis.

Induction and maintenance therapy for lupus nephritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

The aim of this study was to assess the efficacies and toxicities of immunosuppressive treatments for lupus nephritis (LN) versus cyclophosphamide (CYC). A meta-analysis was performed to determine treatment efficacy and toxicity outcomes between mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) and CYC induction therapies, between MMF and azathioprine (AZA) as maintenance therapies, and between low-dose intravenous (IV) CYC and high-dose IV CYC therapy. Ten randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were included in the meta-analysis. In terms of induction therapies, MMF did not increase complete remission or partial remission rates as compared with CYC. However, the relative risks (RRs) of amenorrhea and leukopenia tended to be lower in the MMF group than in the CYC group. Meta-analysis of MMF versus AZA as a maintenance therapy showed no difference between the two groups in terms of response rates or the risk of developing end-stage renal disease. Low-dose IV CYC therapy had lower relapse rates than high-dose IV CYC therapy (RR 0.465, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.261—0.830, p-value 0.010), and was associated with a lower infection risk (RR 0.688, 95% CI 0.523—0.905, p-value 0.008). In conclusion, MMF was found to be as effective as CYC and tended to have a better safety profile as an induction therapy for LN than CYC.

Oral cyclophosphamide for lupus glomerulonephritis: an underused therapeutic option

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

In our center, systemic lupus erythematosus nephritis is routinely treated with an oral cyclophosphamide (POCY) regimen. POCY is easy to administer and less expensive than intravenous cyclophosphamide (IVCY) as it is currently used in the United States; however, the use of POCY has declined in favor of IVCY. Our experience with POCY suggests that it is well tolerated and consistently associated with good long-term outcomes. Here we report this experience to build a case for maintaining POCY as a therapeutic option in lupus nephritis.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS

This is a single-center, retrospective analysis of the outcome of 46 patients who had systemic lupus erythematosus with nephritis and were treated with POCY between 1995 and 2006. POCY was given for 2 to 4 mo at a dosage of 1.0 to 1.5 mg/kg ideal body weight. After completing POCY, the patients received either azathioprine or mycophenolate mofetil.

RESULTS

Median follow-up was 23.5 mo, and median duration of POCY was 4 mo (range 1 to 16 mo). Durable complete or partial remission of proteinuria was achieved in 32 (70%) patients, whereas 5 (11%) progressed to ESRD. Outcomes were comparable in black and white individuals. Adverse effects occurred in fewer than 10% of the cohort, and only four patients discontinued POCY.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that sequential therapy of POCY followed by azathioprine or mycophenolate mofetil is comparable to IVCY regimens but that efficacy may not be affected by race.

Mycophenolate mofetil is as efficacious as, but safer than, cyclophosphamide in the treatment of proliferative lupus nephritis: a meta-analysis and meta-regression

OBJECTIVE

Since mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) has emerged as an immunosuppressant for treating proliferative lupus nephritis, the role of cyclophosphamide (CYC)-containing regimens is being challenged. Efficacy data from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and previous meta-analyses comparing these two agents for treating lupus nephritis have been inconsistent as they were heterogeneous in design and of small sample size. An updated meta-analysis is therefore required.

METHODS

Publications in the English literature were searched with the keywords 'mycophenoate', 'mycophenolic', 'lupus nephritis', 'nephritis' and 'glomerulonephritis' for RCTs in electronic databases. Primary outcome was relative risk (RR) of renal remission at 6 months. Secondary outcome included RRs of mortality, development of end-stage renal failure (ESRF) and side effects. Meta-regression was performed to identify factors explaining the heterogeneity of the effect sizes.

RESULTS

Ten eligible RCTs involving 847 patients were included. MMF offers similar efficacy in inducing renal remission as CYC (RR 1.052; 95% CI 0.950, 1.166) and the risks of death (RR 0.709; 95% CI 0.373, 1.347) and ESRF (RR 0.453; 95% CI 0.183, 1.121) were comparable. Significantly fewer patients receiving MMF developed amenorrhoea (RR 0.212; 95% CI 0.094, 0.479) and leucopenia (RR 0.473; 95% CI 0.269, 0.832) while the risks of herpes infection and pneumonia tended to be lower and that of diarrhoea appeared higher in the MMF groups. Meta-regression revealed that the non-white and non-Asian ethnicities contributed significantly to the heterogeneity of the effect sizes of renal remission.

CONCLUSION

MMF offers similar efficacy in renal remission and survival as CYC. MMF appears safer than CYC in the treatment of proliferative lupus nephritis.

Successful treatment of class V+IV lupus nephritis with multitarget therapy

Treatment of class V+IV lupus nephritis remains unsatisfactory despite the progress made in the treatment of diffuse proliferative lupus nephritis. In this prospective study, 40 patients with class V+IV lupus nephritis were randomly assigned to induction therapy with mycophenolate mofetil, tacrolimus, and steroids (multitarget therapy) or intravenous cyclophosphamide (IVCY). Patients were treated for 6 mo unless complete remission was not achieved, in which case treatment was extended to 9 mo. An intention-to-treat analysis revealed a higher rate of complete remission with multitarget therapy at both 6 and 9 mo (50 and 65%, respectively) than with IVCY (5 and 15%, respectively). At 6 mo, eight (40%) patients in each group experienced partial remission, and at 9 mo, six (30%) patients receiving multitarget therapy and eight (40%) patients receiving IVCY experienced partial remission. There were no deaths during this study. Most adverse events were less frequent in the multitarget therapy group. Calcineurin inhibitor nephrotoxicity was not observed, but three patients developed new-onset hypertension with multitarget therapy. In conclusion, multitarget therapy is superior to IVCY for inducing complete remission of class V+IV lupus nephritis and is well tolerated.

[Treatment of lupus nephritis]

Lupus nephritis is a relevant source of morbidity and mortality in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. The standard therapy of remission induction in severe lupus nephritis is based on the use of monthly intravenous cyclophosphamide. Recent data have established that the maintenance of remission in lupus nephritis can be achieved with azathioprine or mycophenolate mofetil, with less adverse effects than quarterly intravenous cyclophosphamide. In recent years, a number of controlled randomized clinical trials have been published, opening new therapeutic options in the induction of remission in lupus nephritis, such as less aggressive regimens of intravenous cyclophosphamide or mycophenolate mofetil. Further studies are needed for establishing the optimal therapy of lupus nephritis patients.

Optimum therapeutic approaches for lupus nephritis: what therapy and for whom?

The optimum therapy for patients with lupus nephritis is a hotly debated topic. Prospective randomized studies in patients with proliferative lupus nephritis have established the superiority of cyclophosphamide to azathioprine, both of which are used in combination with corticosteroids. Although high-dose, intermittent administration of cyclophosphamide (pulse therapy) has significantly reduced the toxicity associated with this drug, premature ovarian failure and infections remain considerable problems. Short-term to intermediate-term, randomized controlled trials have shown that mycophenolate mofetil is a good option for the induction and maintenance of remission in lupus nephritis patients. Additional longer-term trials involving more patients and stricter outcomes based on renal function are needed, however, before claims that mycophenolate mofetil is superior to cyclophosphamide can be substantiated. Until such data are available, physicians caring for patients with lupus nephritis can use mycophenolate mofetil as induction or maintenance therapy for selected patients under close observation. Small noncontrolled trials with short-term follow-up suggest that up to 50% of patients who are refractory to cyclophosphamide might have a clinically significant response to rituximab, a monoclonal antibody directed against B cells.

Lupus nephritis in Chinese children--a territory-wide cohort study in Hong Kong

We report a multicenter study of Chinese children in Hong Kong with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) nephritis. Children were included if: they fulfilled the ACR criteria, had significant proteinuria or casturia, were Chinese and younger than 19 years and had been diagnosed with SLE between January 1990 and December 2003. Investigators in each center retrieved data on clinical features, biopsy reports, treatment and outcome of these patients. There were 128 patients (eight boys, 120 girls; mean age: 11.9+/-2.8 years). About 50% presented with multisystem illness and 40% with nephritic/nephrotic symptoms. Negative anti-dsDNA antibodies were found in 6% of the patients. Renal biopsy revealed WHO Class II, III, IV and V nephritis in 13 (10%), 22 (17%), 69 (54%) and 13 (10%) patients, respectively. The clinical severity of the nephritis did not accurately predict renal biopsy findings. The follow-up period ranged from 1 to 16.5 years (mean+/-SD: 5.76+/-3.61 years). During the study five patients died (two from lupus flare, one from cardiomyopathy, two from infections). Four patients had endstage renal failure (ESRF) (one died during a lupus flare). All deaths and end-stage renal failure occurred in the Class IV nephritis group. Chronic organ damage was infrequent in the survivors. The actuarial patient survival rates at 5, 10 and 15 years of age were 95.3, 91.8, and 91.8%, respectively. For Class IV nephritis patients, the survival rates without ESRF at 5, 10, and 15 years were 91.5, 82.3 and 76%, respectively. The survival and chronic morbidity rates of the Chinese SLE children in the present study are comparable to those of other published studies.

Therapeutic options for resistant lupus nephritis

OBJECTIVES

To summarize the therapeutic options for proliferative and membranous lupus nephritis that is resistant to conventional treatment.

METHODS

Treatment trials in human lupus nephritis from years 1985 to 2005 that have been published in the English literature were searched by Medline using the keywords "lupus," "nephritis," "glomerulonephritis," "renal," "refractory," "resistant," "recalcitrant," "cyclophosphamide," "mycophenolate," "cyclosporin," "tacrolimus," "leflunomide," "intravenous immunoglobulin," "apheresis," "plasmapheresis," "immunoadsorption," "marrow transplantation," "stem cell transplantation," "immunoablative," "rituximab," and "biologics." Laboratory, histological, and nonrenal lupus studies were excluded.

RESULTS

There is no universal definition of treatment resistance in lupus nephritis. Controlled trials in refractory lupus nephritis are largely unavailable. Open-labeled studies have reported success of newer immunosuppressive drugs, immunomodulatory therapies, and the biological agents such as mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), calcineurin inhibitors, leflunomide, intravenous immunoglobulin, immunoadsorption, and rituximab in the treatment of cyclophosphamide (CYC) resistant proliferative lupus nephritis. More aggressive CYC regimens have been used in lupus nephritis, but at the expense of more toxicities. For membranous lupus nephritis (MLN), a combination of corticosteroids with either azathioprine, chlorambucil, cyclosporin A, MMF, or CYC is initially effective in two-thirds of patients. More aggressive and costly regimens should be reserved for truly refractory disease with persistent nephrotic syndrome or declining renal function. Evidence regarding the efficacy of MMF in refractory MLN is conflicting and controlled trials are necessary to resolve the controversy.

CONCLUSIONS

The treatment of refractory lupus nephritis remains anecdotal. An international consensus in the renal response criteria should be developed and validated so that controlled trials can be performed to compare the efficacy of various treatment modalities.

Long-term outcome of diffuse proliferative lupus glomerulonephritis treated with cyclophosphamide

PURPOSE

To report the long-term outcome of diffuse proliferative lupus nephritis (DPLN) treated with cyclophosphamide (CYC) in Chinese patients.

METHODS

Patients with biopsy-proven DPLN treated with prednisolone and CYC were identified. The long-term renal outcome and treatment-related toxicities were reported.

RESULTS

A total of 212 patients were studied (89% women; mean age 30.9 +/- 10.9 years; mean system lupus erythematosus [SLE] duration 36.7 +/- 55.1 months). At renal biopsy, 148 (70%) patients were nephrotic, and 78 (37%) had impaired serum creatinine. One hundred and three (49%) patients received daily oral CYC, whereas 109 (51%) received intravenous bolus CYC. At last dose of CYC, 126 (59%) patients responded completely, and 56 (26%) responded partially. In a logistic regression model, the cumulative CYC dose and histologic chronicity score predicted complete response. One hundred fifty-five (73%) patients received maintenance immunosuppression for at least 3 years (88% azathioprine). After a follow-up of 1873 patient-years, 66 patients experienced renal flares, 30 had doubling of serum creatinine, 18 developed end-stage renal failure, and 14 died. The renal survival rates were 88.7%, 82.8% and 70.7% at 5, 10 and 15 years, respectively. Failure to respond completely to CYC and the absence of maintenance immunosuppression were independent predictors of a poor renal outcome. Ovarian toxicity was more frequent with the oral CYC regimen. Increasing age and higher cumulative doses of CYC were independent risk factors.

CONCLUSIONS

In Chinese patients with DPLN, the cumulative dose, rather than the route of CYC administration, determines the initial treatment response and ovarian toxicity. Maintenance immunosuppression is associated with a better long-term prognosis. The oral CYC regimen is more toxic and should be reserved for high-risk patients.

Intensified, intermittent, low-dose intravenous cyclophosphamide together with oral alternate-day steroid therapy in lupus nephritis (long-term outcome)

The objective of this study is to evaluate the efficacy, toxicity, and long-term outcome of low-dose IV cyclophosphamid therapy with repeated frequent intervals in combination with oral and IV methylprednisolone in patients with SLE nephritis. In this study, 113 patients diagnosed as having SLE and glomerulonephritis were assessed in between 1993 and 2002, with a median follow-up of 44.1+/-41.2 months. The patients were treated with 500 mg IV cyclophosphamide and 1 g IV methylprednisolone together with 60 mg/alternate-day oral methylprednisolone in a given schedule. The clinical and laboratory data were evaluated. There were significant improvements in the clinical and the laboratory parameters. Six patients died shortly after being hospitalized due to the disease activity itself. Eight patients were excluded from the study because of low compliance. The renal functions of the patients remained stable throughout the therapy; only 16/99 patients needed one or two additional pulses. Temporary leukopenia developed in 18/99 patients and diminished with the suspension or prolongation of the IV cyclophosphamide administration. Gastrointestinal side effects, which needed extra medication, developed in 20 patients. Hematuria was observed in 6/99 patients. Menstrual abnormalities were seen in 7/99 patients. No serious infections due to immunosuppression were observed with the given regimen. Hypertension was observed in 13 patients (minimum of 140/90 mmHg, maximum of 190/110 mmHg) and controlled with angiotensine-converting enzyme inhibitors. Mild central obesity was observed in 15 of the patients. Leimyosarcoma was observed in one patient who died during the follow-up period. Therapy starting with the weekly low-dose IV cyclophosphamide to induce remission together with IV and oral steroids, followed by prolonged intervals with the same doses for 2 years, appears to be useful in preserving renal function without major side effects in patients with lupus nephritis, in comparison to other studies.

Tacrolimus for induction therapy of diffuse proliferative lupus nephritis: an open-labeled pilot study

BACKGROUND

Tacrolimus is a relatively new calcineurin inhibitor that has been increasingly used in transplant medicine. The objective of the current work is to report our preliminary experience with tacrolimus in the treatment of diffuse proliferative glomerulonephritis in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).

METHODS

Nine consecutive patients who fulfilled the American College of Rheumatology criteria for SLE and with biopsy-proven diffuse proliferative glomerulonephritis were recruited for an open-labeled trial with prednisolone and oral tacrolimus (0.1 mg/kg/day for 2 months, followed by 0.06 mg/kg/day). Prospective data on renal response and serologic lupus activity were collected. The efficacy and safety of this regimen was reported.

RESULTS

Baseline characteristics of the patients were: mean age 33.3 +/- 12 years, women to men ratio 2:1, serum creatinine 94.2 +/- 46 micromol/L, daily proteinuria 4.56 +/- 2.4 g, seven (78%) patients were nephrotic, three (33%) were hypertensive, and four (44%) had elevated serum creatinine at the time of renal biopsy. At 6 months of therapy, complete and partial renal response was achieved in six (67%) and two (22%) patients, respectively. Significant improvement in proteinuria, hemoglobin, serum albumin, and C3 levels was observed in comparison with baseline values, starting at the second month. Tacrolimus was generally well tolerated, except for two patients who developed transient hyperglycemia. Infective complications, amenorrhea, hypertrichosis, gingivitis, new-onset hypertension, and significant increase in serum creatinine were not reported.

CONCLUSION

Tacrolimus is an effective option for induction treatment of SLE-diffuse proliferative glomerulonephritis. Further trials are necessary to determine the optimal dosage and duration of therapy, and its efficacy in comparison to standard regimens.

Diagnosis and treatment of kidney disease

Lupus nephritis remains a strong predictor for death and the development of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) in patients with SLE. Definition of renal involvement varies but overt renal disease is found in at least one-third of SLE patients, with up to 60% of adults and 80% of children developing lupus nephritis. Clinical presentation has been found to bear little relationship to renal biopsy findings. Renal biopsy is therefore informative for all patients with SLE with abnormal urinalysis or reduced renal function, even with serum creatinine in the normal range, to guide treatment decisions. Current treatment regimens combine corticosteroids with cyclophosphamide, azathioprine or ciclosporin, although mycophenolate mofetil has received much recent attention as a potentially superior immune suppressive. The toxicity of current drug regimens contributes significantly to existing morbidity and mortality. A new era of biological therapies holds the potential for safer, more effective therapies in the future.

Treatment for lupus nephritis: a revisit

The optimal treatment of severe lupus nephritis remains unclear. Regimens consisting of steroid and cyclophosphamide (CYC) appear to be most effective. Infection and gonadal toxicity is a major concern of CYC use in patients of reproductive age. In addition, failure to respond or refractory to CYC treatment may lead to the development of end-stage renal disease. Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) is a new immunosuppressive agent that selectively inhibits activated lymphocytes and renal mesangial cells. Data from experimental lupus nephritis and controlled studies, albeit small and lacking statistical power, have revealed that MMF is as effective in lupus patients as CYC in the induction of renal remission or as maintenance therapy to reduce renal flare in the short term. The significantly less ovarian toxicity and infection when compared to CYC are particularly attractive for the consideration of MMF in lupus nephritis. The potential of other new therapeutic agents is discussed together with the need for patient recruitment in future trials of lupus nephritis to address the importance of ethnicity as well as histological grading.

Lupus nephritis: induction therapy

Effective induction therapy is of pivotal importance in minimizing renal parenchymal damage by the active immune-mediated inflammatory processes in severe proliferative lupus nephritis. Preservation of nephron mass is prerequisite to long-term renal survival. Data from US-based studies have shown improved efficacy with induction treatment comprising corticosteroid and cyclophosphamide, compared with corticosteroid treatment alone. Data from European studies have shown similar efficacy with a modified treatment regimen, in which smaller doses of cyclophosphamide were given at weekly or fortnightly intervals over a shortened treatment duration, and the treatment related adverse effects appeared less frequent with the reduced-dose regimen. We have also reported that sequential immunosuppression with prednisolone and oral cyclophosphamide as induction followed by azathioprine maintenance was associated with a high incidence of remission and relatively favourable long-term renal outcome in Chinese patients. However, cyclophosphamide treatment is associated with considerable adverse effects, which could be potentially fatal. Mycophenolate mofetil selectively inhibits lymphocyte proliferation, and thus targets an instrumental step in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. There is accumulating evidence that the combined use of mycophenolate mofetil and corticosteroid presents an effective treatment for severe proliferative lupus nephritis in different ethnic groups, and is associated with much fewer adverse effects compared with cyclophosphamide-based regimens. Recent data from our group also demonstrate the long-term efficacy of mycophenolate mofetil in preserving renal survival, when used continuously as both induction and maintenance therapy.