Homeopathic effect: a network perspective

A dynamic network model of the similia principle

The use of drugs in high dilutions and the principle of similarity (or "similia") are two basic tenets of homeopathy. However, the plausibility of both is a subject of debate. Although several models have been proposed to explain the similia principle, it can be best understood and appreciated in the framework of complexity science and dynamic systems theory. This work applies a five-node Boolean network to show how self-organization and adaptation are relevant to rationalizing this traditional medical principle. Simulating the trajectories and attractors of the network system in the energy state-space provides a rudimentary and qualitative illustration of how targeted external perturbations can have pathological effects, leading to permanent, self-sustaining alterations. Similarly, changes that conversely enable the system to find its way back to the original state can induce therapeutic effects, by causing specific shifts in attractors when suitable conditions are satisfied. Extrapolating these mechanisms to homeopathy, we can envisage how major changes in the evolution of homeodynamic systems (and, eventually, healing of the entire body) can be achieved through carefully selected remedies that reproduce the whole symptom pattern of the ill state.

Testing the nanoparticle-allostatic cross-adaptation-sensitization model for homeopathic remedy effects

Key concepts of the Nanoparticle-Allostatic Cross-Adaptation-Sensitization (NPCAS) Model for the action of homeopathic remedies in living systems include source nanoparticles as low level environmental stressors, heterotypic hormesis, cross-adaptation, allostasis (stress response network), time-dependent sensitization with endogenous amplification and bidirectional change, and self-organizing complex adaptive systems. The model accommodates the requirement for measurable physical agents in the remedy (source nanoparticles and/or source adsorbed to silica nanoparticles). Hormetic adaptive responses in the organism, triggered by nanoparticles; bipolar, metaplastic change, dependent on the history of the organism. Clinical matching of the patient's symptom picture, including modalities, to the symptom pattern that the source material can cause (cross-adaptation and cross-sensitization). Evidence for nanoparticle-related quantum macro-entanglement in homeopathic pathogenetic trials. This paper examines research implications of the model, discussing the following hypotheses: Variability in nanoparticle size, morphology, and aggregation affects remedy properties and reproducibility of findings. Homeopathic remedies modulate adaptive allostatic responses, with multiple dynamic short- and long-term effects. Simillimum remedy nanoparticles, as novel mild stressors corresponding to the organism's dysfunction initiate time-dependent cross-sensitization, reversing the direction of dysfunctional reactivity to environmental stressors. The NPCAS model suggests a way forward for systematic research on homeopathy. The central proposition is that homeopathic treatment is a form of nanomedicine acting by modulation of endogenous adaptation and metaplastic amplification processes in the organism to enhance long-term systemic resilience and health.

Nonlinear dynamical systems effects of homeopathic remedies on multiscale entropy and correlation dimension of slow wave sleep EEG in young adults with histories of coffee-induced insomnia

BACKGROUND

Investigators of homeopathy have proposed that nonlinear dynamical systems (NDS) and complex systems science offer conceptual and analytic tools for evaluating homeopathic remedy effects. Previous animal studies demonstrate that homeopathic medicines alter delta electroencephalographic (EEG) slow wave sleep. The present study extended findings of remedy-related sleep stage alterations in human subjects by testing the feasibility of using two different NDS analytic approaches to assess remedy effects on human slow wave sleep EEG.

METHODS

Subjects (N=54) were young adult male and female college students with a history of coffee-related insomnia who participated in a larger 4-week study of the polysomnographic effects of homeopathic medicines on home-based all-night sleep recordings. Subjects took one bedtime dose of a homeopathic remedy (Coffea cruda or Nux vomica 30c). We computed multiscale entropy (MSE) and the correlation dimension (Mekler-D2) for stages 3 and 4 slow wave sleep EEG sampled in artifact-free 2-min segments during the first two rapid-eye-movement (REM) cycles for remedy and post-remedy nights, controlling for placebo and post-placebo night effects.

RESULTS

MSE results indicate significant, remedy-specific directional effects, especially later in the night (REM cycle 2) (CC: remedy night increases and post-remedy night decreases in MSE at multiple sites for both stages 3 and 4 in both REM cycles; NV: remedy night decreases and post-remedy night increases, mainly in stage 3 REM cycle 2 MSE). D2 analyses yielded more sporadic and inconsistent findings.

CONCLUSIONS

Homeopathic medicines Coffea cruda and Nux vomica in 30c potencies alter short-term nonlinear dynamic parameters of slow wave sleep EEG in healthy young adults. MSE may provide a more sensitive NDS analytic method than D2 for evaluating homeopathic remedy effects on human sleep EEG patterns.

A complex systems science perspective for whole systems of complementary and alternative medicine research

Whole systems complementary and alternative medicine (WS-CAM) approaches share a basic worldview that embraces interconnectedness; emergent, non-linear outcomes to treatment that include both local and global changes in the human condition; a contextual view of human beings that are inseparable from and responsive to their environments; and interventions that are complex, synergistic, and interdependent. These fundamental beliefs and principles run counter to the assumptions of reductionism and conventional biomedical research methods that presuppose unidimensional simple causes and thus dismantle and individually test various interventions that comprise only single aspects of the WSCAM system. This paper will demonstrate the superior fit and practical advantages of using complex adaptive systems (CAS) and related modeling approaches to develop the scientific basis for WS-CAM. Furthermore, the details of these CAS models will be used to provide working hypotheses to explain clinical phenomena such as (a) persistence of changes for weeks to months between treatments and/or after cessation of treatment, (b) nonlocal and whole systems changes resulting from therapy, (c) Hering's law, and (d) healing crises. Finally, complex systems science will be used to offer an alternative perspective on cause, beyond the simple reductionism of mainstream mechanistic ontology and more parsimonious than the historical vitalism of WS-CAM. Rather, complex systems science provides a scientifically rigorous, yet essentially holistic ontological perspective with which to conceptualize and empirically explore the development of disease and illness experiences, as well as experiences of healing and wellness.

Whole complementary and alternative medical systems and complexity: creating collaborative relationships

In recent years, investigators have discovered significant limitations in applying biomedical cause-effect assumptions and using conventional efficacy study designs to assess the clinical outcomes of whole systems of complementary and alternative medicine (WS-CAM). A group of WS-CAM researchers has been working collaboratively since 2001 to address the limitations of studies evaluating WS-CAM and discern ways to conduct research that would capture the complexity of such systems and the synergistic effects between the various elements of the system and would take into account treatment individualization and/or the patient-centered nature of treatment systems. In 2009, 14 complexity scientists from systems biology, psychology and the social sciences were invited to attend a workshop with these CAM scientists to (a) identify and discuss analytical techniques that can be used to study phenomena from a complex/nonlinear dynamical sciences perspective, (b) establish working relationships with these researchers, and (c) develop working research projects/ protocols to collaboratively study patient-centered responses to CAM treatments. This paper provides an overview of the workshop goals and outcomes, introducing this special issue of Forschende Komplementärmedizin.

Does homeopathy have anything to contribute to hormesis?

Homeopathy is the best known medical analogue of hormesis, others include hormoligosis and paradoxical pharmacology. Homeopathy is based on the concept Similia similibus curentur ('Let like be cured by like'); the exploitation of secondary effects of drugs, the body's reaction rather than the primary pharmacological action. The most controversial aspect of homeopathy is its use of 'ultramolecular' dilutions in which a single molecule of the starting substance is unlikely to be present. Classical pharmacological actions in vivo have been reported with dilutions as high as 10(-22)mol/L, but homeopathic medicines may be far more dilute than this. There is growing biological evidence including independent reproduction that in vivo effects may occur at such dilutions. In a systematic review, 73% of experiments showed an effect with ultramolecular dilutions including 68% of high-quality experiments. Physical and physico-chemical work suggests that homeopathic preparations contain stable ordered supramolecular structures, gas nanobubbles and dissolved silicates may be involved. Homeopathy may contribute to the generalizability and reproducibility of hormesis effects. It also raises the question of the threshold of hormesis effects.

The defining role of structure (including epitaxy) in the plausibility of homeopathy

The key stumbling block to serious consideration of homeopathy is the presumed "implausibility" of biological activity for homeopathic medicines in which the source material is diluted past Avogadro's number of molecules. Such an argument relies heavily on the assumptions of elementary chemistry (and biochemistry), in which the material composition of a solution, (dilution factors and ligand-receptor interactions), is the essential consideration. In contrast, materials science focuses on the three-dimensional complex network structure of the condensed phase of water itself, rather than the original solute molecules. The nanoheterogenous structure of water can be determined by interactive phenomena such as epitaxy (the transmission of structural information from the surface of one material to another without the transfer of any matter), temperature-pressure processes during succussion, and formation of colloidal nanobubbles containing gaseous inclusions of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and possibly the remedy source material. Preliminary data obtained using Raman and Ultra-Violet-Visible (UV-VIS) spectroscopy illustrate the ability to distinguish two different homeopathic medicines (Nux vomica and Natrum muriaticum) from one another and to differentiate, within a given medicine, the 6c, 12c, and 30c potencies. Materials science concepts and experimental tools offer a new approach to contemporary science, for making significant advances in the basic science studies of homeopathic medicines.

Immunology and homeopathy. 4. Clinical studies-part 2

The clinical studies on the effectiveness of homeopathy in respiratory allergy (18 randomized trials and 9 observational studies) are described. The literature of common immunologic disorders including also upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) and otorhinolaryngology (reported in part 1), is evaluated and discussed. Most of initial evidence-based research was addressed to the question of whether homeopathic high dilutions are placebos or possess specific effects, but this question has been often equivocal and is still a matter of debate. The evidence demonstrates that in some conditions homeopathy shows significant promise, e.g. Galphimia glauca (low dilutions/potencies) in allergic oculorhinitis, classical individualized homeopathy in otitis and possibly in asthma and allergic complaints, and a few low-potency homeopathic complexes in sinusitis and rhinoconjunctivitis. A general weakness of evidence derives from lack of independent confirmation of reported trials and from presence of conflicting results, as in case of homeopathic immunotherapy and of classical homeopathy for URTI. The suitable methods to evaluate homeopathy effectiveness, without altering the setting of cure, are also analyzed.

The potential impact of the use of homeopathic and herbal remedies on monitoring the safety of prescription products

The purpose of this paper is to explore the possibility that adverse reactions and drug interactions arising from the use of homeopathic and herbal medicines could lead to confusion when adverse reactions to conventional medicines are reported. An extensive literature review was conducted on the occurrence of adverse reactions and drug interactions following the use of homeopathic or herbal remedies, and the potential for these to confound adverse event reporting to conventional medicines considered. The survey demonstrates the potential for herbal remedies and homeopathic products, to produce adverse drug reactions or drug interactions, and shows the scope for potential for confusion with those arising from conventional medicines. There is a need for greater awareness that adverse reactions apparently due to a conventional medicine, might in reality be due to a herbal medicine or a drug interaction between a herbal medicine and a conventional drug, particularly when a health professional is unaware of the extent of a patient's self-medication with alternative therapies.

CAM Modalities Can Stimulate Advances in Theoretical Biology

Most complementary medicine is distinguished by not being supported by underlying theory accepted by Western science. However, for those who accept their validity, complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) modalities offer clues to understanding physiology and medicine more deeply. Ayurveda and vibrational medicine are stimulating new approaches to biological regulation. The new biophysics can be integrated to yield a single consistent theory, which may well underly much of CAM-a true 'physics of physick'. The resulting theory seems to be a new, fundamental theory of health and etiology. It suggests that many CAM approaches to health care are scientifically in advance of those based on current Western biology. Such theories may well constitute the next steps in our scientific understanding of biology itself. If successfully developed, these ideas could result in a major paradigm shift in both biology and medicine, which will benefit all interested parties-consumers, health professionals, scientists, institutions and governments.

Strength of vital force in classical homeopathy: bio-psycho-social-spiritual correlates within a complex systems context

OBJECTIVE

To explore associations between a global rating for the classical homeopathic construct of vital force and clinician and patient ratings on previously validated bio-psycho-social-spiritual questionnaires.

METHODS

Sixty-two (62) community-recruited patients with fibromyalgia (FM) were assessed at baseline prior to a clinical trial of individualized homeopathy. Two homeopaths jointly performed case-taking interviews. A conventional medical provider independently evaluated patients with a standardized history and physical examination. Homeopaths rated each patient's vital force (five-point Likert scale, with 1 = very weak to 5 = very strong). Homeopaths and the conventional medical provider rated their Clinical Global Impression (CGI) of the severity of illness (1 = normal; 7 = among the most extremely ill). Patients completed self-rating scales on pain, global health, mood, quality of life, coping style, health locus of control, multidimensional well-being, spirituality, sense of coherence, positive states of mind, and social desirability.

RESULTS

Greater vital force ratings (mean 2.9 standard deviation [SD] 0.6) correlated moderately (p < or = 0.005) with less severe CGI illness ratings by the homeopaths (r =-0.59), decreased patient-rated mental confusion (r =-0.43), higher vigor (r = 0.38), and greater positive states of mind (r = 0.36). Vital force also showed correlations (p < 0.05) with lower CGI ratings by the conventional medical provider (r =-0.32), better selfrated quality of life (r = 0.33), lesser fatigue (r =-0.31), better global health (r = 0.29), greater sense of coherence (r = 0.28), powerful-others health locus of control (r = 0.27), increased emotional well-being (r = 0.27), and higher social desirability (r = 0.27), but not with age, pain, or illness duration.

CONCLUSION

Homeopathic vital force ratings reflect better perceived mental function, energy, and positive dimensions of the individual, beyond absence of disease.

Electroencephalographic Cordance Patterns Distinguish Exceptional Clinical Responders with Fibromyalgia to Individualized Homeopathic Medicines

OBJECTIVES

To characterize initial central nervous system responses to olfactory administration of homeopathic remedies as biomarkers for subsequently exceptional, simillimum-like clinical outcomes at a systemic level (i.e., both locally and globally).

DESIGN

Double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial.

SETTING

A private homeopathic clinic in Phoenix, AZ, and a university laboratory in Tucson, AZ.

PATIENTS

Sixty-two (62) persons with physician-confirmed fibromyalgia (FM) (mean age, 49 years; 94% women) enrolled; 53 completed the 3-month assessment visit. Exceptional responders (n = 6, 23% of active treatment group; none on placebo) were those with improvements in the top one-third for both tender point pain and global health ratings after 3 months.

INTERVENTION

Patients took daily oral doses of treatment solution in LM (1/50,000 dilution) potency (active group received individualized remedy; placebo group received plain solvent). Dependent measures: Baseline and 3-month difference scores for initial prefrontal electroencephalographic alpha frequency cordance (EEG-C, a correlate of functional brain activity) during 16 pairs of randomized, double-blinded bottle sniffs (treatment minus control solutions).

RESULTS

Exceptional responders versus other patients exhibited significantly more negative initial EEG-C difference scores at prefrontal sites. Right prefrontal cordance findings correlated with subsequently reduced pain (r = 0.85, p = 0.03), better global health (r =-0.73, p = 0.10), and trait absorption (genetically determined ability to focus attention selectively and fully) (r = 0.91, p = 0.012).

CONCLUSIONS

These observations suggest prefrontal EEG-C as an early biomarker of individualized homeopathic medicine effects in patients with FM who later exhibit exceptional outcomes. Prefrontal cortex controls executive function, including ability to redirect attention. Interactions between executive function, absorption, and the simillimum remedy could facilitate exceptional responses.

Complexity science and homeopathy: a synthetic overview

Homeopathy is founded on 'holistic' and 'vitalistic' paradigms, which may be interpreted--at least in part--in terms of a framework provided by the theory of dynamic systems and of complexity. The conceptual models and some experimental findings from complexity science may support the paradoxical claims of similia principle and of dilution/dynamization effects. It is argued that better appreciation of three main properties of complex systems: non-linearity, self-organization, and dynamicity, will not only add to our basic understanding of homeopathic phenomena but also illuminate new directions for experimental investigations and therapeutic settings.

Are We Close to a Theory of Energy Medicine?

Critical phenomena offer an attractive new theoretical resource for biophysics. Physical instabilities result in fluctuations, the quantum properties of which can be applied to regulatory control mechanisms in living organisms with promising results. Many aspects of energy medicine can be scientifically modeled, in agreement with previous theoretical ideas and speculation, such as the existence of macroscopic quantum coherence in living systems. Light is shed on areas of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) such as Ayurveda, naturopathy, and the nature and action of potentized medicines in homeopathy and other aspects of vibrational medicine.

Patient–practitioner–remedy (PPR) entanglement Part 4

The possibility of classifying and unifying some of the recent entanglement models for homeopathy is discussed. Unification involves combining the previous GHZ/WQT-based entanglement model, itself a fusion of Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger (GHZ) three-particle entanglement and a generalised version of quantum theory, called Weak Quantum Theory (WQT), with Walach's semiotic model involving double entanglement. The new combined model invokes a 'geometry' of patient-practitioner-remedy (PPR) entanglement embedded in a therapeutic state space.

Patient-practitioner-remedy (PPR) entanglement. Part 1: a qualitative, non-local metaphor for homeopathy based on quantum theory

A metaphor for homeopathy is developed in which the potentised medicine, the patient, and the practitioner are seen as forming a non-local therapeutically 'entangled' triad, qualitatively described in terms of the transactional interpretation of quantum mechanics.