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Zou L, Herold F, Ludyga S, Kamijo K, Müller NG, Pontifex MB, Heath M, Kuwamizu R, Soya H, Hillman CH, Ando S, Alderman BL, Cheval B, Kramer AF. Look into my eyes: What can eye-based measures tell us about the relationship between physical activity and cognitive performance? JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2023; 12:568-591. [PMID: 37148971 PMCID: PMC10466196 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2023.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a growing interest to understand the neurobiological mechanisms that drive the positive associations of physical activity and fitness with measures of cognitive performance. To better understand those mechanisms, several studies have employed eye-based measures (e.g., eye movement measures such as saccades, pupillary measures such as pupil dilation, and vascular measures such as retinal vessel diameter) deemed to be proxies for specific neurobiological mechanisms. However, there is currently no systematic review providing a comprehensive overview of these studies in the field of exercise-cognition science. Thus, this review aimed to address that gap in the literature. METHODS To identify eligible studies, we searched 5 electronic databases on October 23, 2022. Two researchers independently extracted data and assessed the risk of bias using a modified version of the Tool for the assEssment of Study qualiTy and reporting in EXercise (TESTEX scale, for interventional studies) and the critical appraisal tool from the Joanna Briggs Institute (for cross-sectional studies). RESULTS Our systematic review (n = 35 studies) offers the following main findings: (a) there is insufficient evidence available to draw solid conclusions concerning gaze-fixation-based measures; (b) the evidence that pupillometric measures, which are a proxy for the noradrenergic system, can explain the positive effect of acute exercise and cardiorespiratory fitness on cognitive performance is mixed; (c) physical training- or fitness-related changes of the cerebrovascular system (operationalized via changes in retinal vasculature) are, in general, positively associated with cognitive performance improvements; (d) acute and chronic physical exercises show a positive effect based on an oculomotor-based measure of executive function (operationalized via antisaccade tasks); and (e) the positive association between cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive performance is partly mediated by the dopaminergic system (operationalized via spontaneous eye-blink rate). CONCLUSION This systematic review offers confirmation that eye-based measures can provide valuable insight into the neurobiological mechanisms that may drive positive associations between physical activity and fitness and measures of cognitive performance. However, due to the limited number of studies utilizing specific methods for obtaining eye-based measures (e.g., pupillometry, retinal vessel analysis, spontaneous eye blink rate) or investigating a possible dose-response relationship, further research is necessary before more nuanced conclusions can be drawn. Given that eye-based measures are economical and non-invasive, we hope this review will foster the future application of eye-based measures in the field of exercise-cognition science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liye Zou
- Body-Brain-Mind Laboratory, School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; Research Group Degenerative and Chronic Diseases, Movement, Faculty of Health Sciences Brandenburg, University of Potsdam, Potsdam 14476, Germany.
| | - Fabian Herold
- Body-Brain-Mind Laboratory, School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; Research Group Degenerative and Chronic Diseases, Movement, Faculty of Health Sciences Brandenburg, University of Potsdam, Potsdam 14476, Germany
| | - Sebastian Ludyga
- Department of Sport, Exercise, and Health, University of Basel, Basel 4052, Switzerland
| | - Keita Kamijo
- Faculty of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Chukyo University, Nagoya 466-8666, Japan
| | - Notger G Müller
- Body-Brain-Mind Laboratory, School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; Research Group Degenerative and Chronic Diseases, Movement, Faculty of Health Sciences Brandenburg, University of Potsdam, Potsdam 14476, Germany
| | - Matthew B Pontifex
- Department of Kinesiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Matthew Heath
- School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London ON N6A 3K7, Canada; Canadian Centre for Activity and Aging, University of Western Ontario, London ON, N6A 3K7, Canada; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Western Ontario, London ON, N6A 3K7, Canada
| | - Ryuta Kuwamizu
- Laboratory of Exercise Biochemistry and Neuroendocrinology, Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-0006, Japan
| | - Hideaki Soya
- Laboratory of Exercise Biochemistry and Neuroendocrinology, Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-0006, Japan; Sport Neuroscience Division, Advanced Research Initiative for Human High Performance (ARIHHP), Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-0006, Japan
| | - Charles H Hillman
- Center for Cognitive and Brain Health, Department of Psychology, Department of Physical Therapy, Movement, and Rehabilitation Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Soichi Ando
- Graduate School of Informatics and Engineering, The University of Electro-Communications, Tokyo 182-8585, Japan
| | - Brandon L Alderman
- Department of Kinesiology and Health, Rutgers University-New Brunswick, New Brunswick, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Boris Cheval
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva 1205, Switzerland; Laboratory for the Study of Emotion Elicitation and Expression (E3Lab), Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva 1205, Switzerland
| | - Arthur F Kramer
- Department of Psychology, Center for Cognitive and Brain Health, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Beckman Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL 61820, USA
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Kunita K, Fujiwara K. Influence of sports experience on distribution of pro-saccade reaction time under gap condition. J Physiol Anthropol 2022; 41:4. [PMID: 35081976 PMCID: PMC8793195 DOI: 10.1186/s40101-022-00277-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Previous studies indicated that substantial individual variation exists in the distribution of pro-saccade reaction times under gap condition. To investigate the influence of sports experience on the distribution, we examined distribution of the pro-saccade reaction time under overlap and gap conditions, for the basketball club, table tennis club, and non-sporting control groups. Methods Subjects performed pro-saccade tasks under the overlap and gap conditions, in which the intentional and reflexive disengagement of fixation are important, respectively. Under the overlap condition, the central fixation point was illuminated for a random duration of 1–3 s, then the fixation point was turned off. Just after the switch-off of the fixation point, one of the peripheral targets was illuminated for a duration of 1 s. The visual stimulus under the gap condition was almost the same as that under the overlap condition. However, only the temporal gap between the switch-off of the fixation point and the onset of the target differed between those conditions. The gap duration in the gap condition was set at 200 ms. The mean of median value of the bandwidth showing the earliest peak in the histogram was calculated for each group. Thereafter, for each subject, the bandwidth showing the earliest peak under the gap condition was defined as the criterion bandwidth (0 ms bandwidth). Based on this criterion bandwidth, the mean of the relative frequency was calculated for every 10 ms of bandwidth, for the overlap and gap conditions, in each group. Results Under the overlap condition, for all subjects, the pro-saccade reaction times showed unimodal distribution. The means of the median value of the bandwidth showing the earliest peak for the basketball and table tennis groups (approximate 170 ms) were significantly earlier than that for the control group (approximate 190 ms). Under the gap condition, the distribution was bimodal for 11 of 15 subjects in the basketball group and for 5 of 15 subjects in the control group. In the table tennis group, the distribution was not bimodal but unimodal for all 15 subjects. For the basketball group, mean of the relative frequency showed bimodal distribution with approximate 120 ms and 170 ms peaks. For the table tennis and control groups, the mean of the relative frequency showed unimodal distribution with approximate 130 ms and 140ms peak, respectively. Conclusions The present study indicated that under the gap condition, the sports experience influenced on the distribution of the pro-saccade reaction time. The pro-saccade reaction time under the condition would show a distinct bimodal distribution for the basketball group and show a distinct and early unimodal distribution for the table tennis group. It was suggested that the physiological factor leading the group difference in the distribution was the effect of sports experience on the disengagement function of fixation.
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Nascimento H, Alvarez-Peregrina C, Martinez-Perez C, Sánchez-Tena MÁ. Differences in Visuospatial Expertise between Skeet Shooting Athletes and Non-Athletes. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18158147. [PMID: 34360440 PMCID: PMC8346005 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18158147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sports vision is a specialisation of optometry whose objective is to improve and preserve visual function to increase sports performance. The main objective of the present study was to compare the visual expertise of non-athletes to skeet shooting athletes. METHODS Participants underwent an optometric assessment in which all those with severe deviations from normal vision, after compensating for visual abnormalities, were eliminated. After that, the following six visuospatial components were measured: hand-eye coordination, peripheral awareness, fixation disparity, saccadic eye movements, speed of recognition and visual memory. To measure the aforementioned components, the following tests were used: directional arrows, similar and different characters, the dichromatic disparity test, character marking, a tachistoscopic test and tic-tac-toe using COI-vision software. RESULTS Skeet shooting athletes performed significatively better (p ≤ 0.05) in two out of the six tests: hand-eye coordination and visual memory. CONCLUSIONS Although this study does not support the theory that athletes-in this case, skeet shooting athletes-perform significantly better in most components of the visuospatial tests, visual memory and hand-eye coordination are exceptions. To be more accurate in distinguishing between athletes and non-athletes, specific testing methods that can be used by a wide variety of disciplines should be developed. Training the weakest aspects of athletes can improve their sports performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrique Nascimento
- ISEC Lisboa—Instituto de Educação e Ciência de Lisboa, 1750-179 Lisboa, Portugal; (H.N.); (M.Á.S.-T.)
| | | | - Clara Martinez-Perez
- ISEC Lisboa—Instituto de Educação e Ciência de Lisboa, 1750-179 Lisboa, Portugal; (H.N.); (M.Á.S.-T.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Miguel Ángel Sánchez-Tena
- ISEC Lisboa—Instituto de Educação e Ciência de Lisboa, 1750-179 Lisboa, Portugal; (H.N.); (M.Á.S.-T.)
- Department of Optometry and Vision, Faculty of Optics and Optometry, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28037 Madrid, Spain
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Properties of fast vergence eye movements and horizontal saccades in athletes. Physiol Behav 2021; 235:113397. [PMID: 33775660 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Visual information based on eye movements influences sports performance in 3-D space. The purpose of this study was to clarify the properties of fast vergence eye movements and horizontal saccades in athletes. Thirty-four college students were classified into three groups: twelve baseball players (BAS), ten track and field athletes (TRA) and twelve non-athletes (NON). The oculomotor tasks consisted of vergence eye movements (vergence task) including convergence and divergence, and horizontal saccades (saccade task). The participants made a rapid gaze shift toward a visual target. For the vergence task, the target was irradiated at 5 different vergence angles (3, 5, 10, 15, 20°) randomly. For the saccade task, the target was irradiated at 5 different saccade amplitudes (0, ±5, ±10°) randomly. The results showed that the peak eye velocity was higher in order of saccade, convergence, and divergence eye movements. The gain of convergence and saccades was higher than that of divergence. Furthermore, the latency of saccades was shorter than that of convergence and divergence. These results suggest that saccades and convergence are superior compared with divergence, and the dynamic property of convergence is partially analogous to horizontal saccades. The results of the comparison between the three groups showed that the latency of convergence was shorter for BAS than for NON. Therefore, different visual experience and baseball training could influence the gaze-shift dynamics during convergence eye movements.
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Millard L, Shaw I, Breukelman GJ, Shaw BS. Differences in visio-spatial expertise between 1 st division rugby players and non-athletes. Heliyon 2021; 7:e06290. [PMID: 33665445 PMCID: PMC7900701 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to compare the visual expertise of non-athletes (n = 40; 19–35 years old; age: 22.13 ± 2.37 years) to amateur, non-professional South-African Rugby Union (SARU) first-division club rugby players (n = 40; 19–35 years old; age: 23.88 ± 4.36 years; training age mean: 9.0 ± 1.5 years). Research suggests that athletes have enhanced visio-spatial expertise in comparison to non-athletes. However, conflicting research suggests that this is not always the case as non-athletes possess similar visio-spatial expertise in certain visual skills. Participants underwent an optometric assessment after which the following 6 visio-spatial intelligence (VSI) components were measured; accommodation facility, saccadic eye movement, speed of recognition, peripheral awareness, visual memory and hand-eye coordination using the following tests; hart near far rock, saccadic eye movement, evasion, accumulator, flash memory and ball wall toss tests. Results indicated that first-division rugby players performed significantly better (p ≤ 0.05) in five of the six tests performed, except for visual memory (p = 0.893). While this study substantiates the notion that athletes, in this case first-division rugby players, performs significantly better in most VSI components, this is not the case for all, as with visual memory in this study. To more accurately distinguish between athletes and non-athletes, research should move away from tests that focus on basic visual function and develop sport specific testing methods that can be used by a variety of sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lourens Millard
- Department of Human Movement Science, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa
| | - Ina Shaw
- Department of Human Movement Science, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa
| | - Gerrit Jan Breukelman
- Department of Human Movement Science, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa
| | - Brandon S Shaw
- Department of Human Movement Science, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa
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Oculomotor Control in Amputee Soccer Players. Adapt Phys Activ Q 2020; 37:41-55. [PMID: 31837646 DOI: 10.1123/apaq.2019-0028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The authors investigated the dynamics of saccadic parameters during a stationary oculomotor target task in amputee soccer players (n = 16), able-bodied soccer players (n = 16), and nonathletic control subjects (n = 16). Eye movements during the visual-search tasks were recorded binocularly using a mobile eye-tracking system, and the gaze parameters were analyzed (fixation duration, saccade duration, saccade amplitude, saccade average acceleration, saccade peak deceleration, saccade average velocity, and ocular mobility index). The average saccade acceleration in the amputee soccer players was significantly lower than in the able-bodied players (p = .021). Other saccade characteristics in disabled athletes were comparable to those of the able-bodied groups. Moreover, the able-bodied soccer players presented faster saccadic parameters than nonathletes in terms of saccade acceleration (p = .002), deceleration (p = .015), and velocity (p = .009). The modification of oculomotor functions may result from extensive practice and participation in ball games. The authors' hypothesis that oculomotor functions in amputee soccer players may be impaired was not fully confirmed.
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Zwierko T, Jedziniak W, Florkiewicz B, Stępiński M, Buryta R, Kostrzewa-Nowak D, Nowak R, Popowczak M, Woźniak J. Oculomotor dynamics in skilled soccer players: The effects of sport expertise and strenuous physical effort. Eur J Sport Sci 2018; 19:612-620. [PMID: 30378462 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2018.1538391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The ability to quickly locate objects within the visual field has a significant influence on athletic performance. Saccades are conjugate eye movements responsible for the rapid shift that brings a new part of the visual field into foveal vision. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of sport expertise and intense physical effort on saccade dynamics during a free-viewing visual search task in skilled soccer players. Two groups of male subjects participated in this study: 18 soccer players and 18 non-athletes as the control group. Two sessions of visual search tasks without a sport-specific design were employed. Eye movements during the visual search tasks were recorded binocularly. Between pre- and post-test sessions, athletes performed a maximal incremental treadmill test. Cardiorespiratory parameters were measured continuously. Capillary lactate samples were collected. Pre-test findings indicated that athletes, in comparison to non-athletes, achieve higher values of the following characteristics of saccades (1) average acceleration, (2) acceleration peak, (3) deceleration peak, and (4) average velocity. An increase in post-test saccade duration and a decrease in post-test saccade velocity was observed in athletes due to the strenuous physical effort in relation to the pre-test state. Athletes may transfer high saccadic function efficiency to non-specific visual stimuli. The findings partially confirm that physical exertion can reduce oculomotor efficiency in athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Zwierko
- a Department of Physical Culture and Health Promotion, Functional and Structural Human Research Center , University of Szczecin , Szczecin , Poland
| | - Wojciech Jedziniak
- a Department of Physical Culture and Health Promotion, Functional and Structural Human Research Center , University of Szczecin , Szczecin , Poland
| | - Beata Florkiewicz
- a Department of Physical Culture and Health Promotion, Functional and Structural Human Research Center , University of Szczecin , Szczecin , Poland
| | - Miłosz Stępiński
- a Department of Physical Culture and Health Promotion, Functional and Structural Human Research Center , University of Szczecin , Szczecin , Poland
| | - Rafał Buryta
- a Department of Physical Culture and Health Promotion, Functional and Structural Human Research Center , University of Szczecin , Szczecin , Poland
| | - Dorota Kostrzewa-Nowak
- a Department of Physical Culture and Health Promotion, Functional and Structural Human Research Center , University of Szczecin , Szczecin , Poland
| | - Robert Nowak
- a Department of Physical Culture and Health Promotion, Functional and Structural Human Research Center , University of Szczecin , Szczecin , Poland
| | - Marek Popowczak
- b Department of Team Sports Games , University School of Physical Education , Wrocław , Poland
| | - Jarosław Woźniak
- c Department of Mathematics and Physics , University of Szczecin , Szczecin , Poland
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Wang CH, Chang CC, Liang YM, Shih CM, Chiu WS, Tseng P, Hung DL, Tzeng OJL, Muggleton NG, Juan CH. Open vs. closed skill sports and the modulation of inhibitory control. PLoS One 2013; 8:e55773. [PMID: 23418458 PMCID: PMC3572130 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inhibitory control, or the ability to suppress planned but inappropriate prepotent actions in the current environment, plays an important role in the control of human performance. Evidence from empirical studies utilizing a sport-specific design has shown that athletes have superior inhibitory control. However, less is known about whether this superiority might (1) still be seen in a general cognitive task without a sport-related context; (2) be modulated differentially by different sporting expertise (e.g., tennis versus swimming). METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Here we compared inhibitory control across tennis players, swimmers and sedentary non-athletic controls using a stop-signal task without a sport-specific design. Our primary finding showed that tennis players had shorter stop-signal reaction times (SSRTs) when compared to swimmers and sedentary controls, whereas no difference was found between swimmers and sedentary controls. Importantly, this effect was further confirmed after considering potential confounding factors (e.g., BMI, training experience, estimated levels of physical activity and VO2max), indicative of better ability to inhibit unrequired responses in tennis players. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE This suggests that fundamental inhibitory control in athletes can benefit from open skill training. Sport with both physical and cognitive demands may provide a potential clinical intervention for those who have difficulties in inhibitory control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Hao Wang
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
| | - Che-Chien Chang
- Office of Physical Education, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Ming Liang
- Office of Physical Education, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Ming Shih
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
- Graduate School of Human Sexuality, Shu-Te University, Kaoshiung, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Sheng Chiu
- Office of Physical Education, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
| | - Philip Tseng
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
| | - Daisy L. Hung
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
- Laboratories for Cognitive Neuroscience, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ovid J. L. Tzeng
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
- Laboratories for Cognitive Neuroscience, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Neil G. Muggleton
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
- Laboratories for Cognitive Neuroscience, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Chi-Hung Juan
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
- Laboratories for Cognitive Neuroscience, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
- * E-mail:
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Fujiwara K, Kiyota N, Kunita K, Yasukawa M, Maeda K, Deng X. Eye movement performance and prefrontal hemodynamics during saccadic eye movements in the elderly. J Physiol Anthropol 2010; 29:71-8. [PMID: 20551587 DOI: 10.2114/jpa2.29.71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
No previous study has investigated age-related changes in prefrontal hemodynamics during saccade tasks in a large number of elderly adults. The purpose of this study was to evaluate prefrontal activity related to the performance of anti-saccade in the elderly using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Ninety-six elderly adults and 22 young adults performed pro- and anti-saccade tasks. Measures included reaction times of both saccades, error rate during anti-saccade, and concentration of oxyhemoglobin (Deltaoxy-Hb) in the prefrontal cortex during both saccades. Saccade performance, especially error rate, was significantly poorer in the elderly than the young. In the elderly, error rates were widely distributed from 5% to 100%. In about half (48%) of the elderly, error rates were distributed under the mean+3 standard deviations (48%) for the young, and Deltaoxy-Hb did not differ significantly from that in the young. Elderly subjects whose anti-saccade reaction time was over the regression line (of reaction time in anti-saccade to that in pro-saccade in the young)+2 standard errors showed a strong positive correlation (r=0.79) between Deltaoxy-Hb and error rate, as did those whose error rate exceeded 48%. In the elderly subjects whose error rates exceeded 90%, Deltaoxy-Hb was extremely small and deviated greatly from the correlation between Deltaoxy-Hb and error rate. Based on these findings, we propose a method of evaluating inhibitory function and attention allocation in anti-saccade performance, which is mainly related to the prefrontal cortex, in the elderly, using NIRS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsuo Fujiwara
- Department of Human Movement and Health, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan.
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Kiyota N, Fujiwara K. Effects of anti-saccade training with neck flexion on eye movement performance, presaccadic potentials and prefrontal hemodynamics in the elderly. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 110:1143-54. [PMID: 20711603 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-010-1603-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Anti-saccade performance, with strong contributions from frontal brain regions, reportedly deteriorates with age and maintenance of neck flexion and is known to cause brain activation. We investigated the effects of anti-saccade training on eye movement performance and frontal activity, and synergistic effects of training with neck flexion in the elderly. Thirty elderly individuals were divided into three equal groups: training group at neck resting position (NRT); training group at 20° neck flexion position (NFT); and untrained group. NRT and NFT performed approximately 200 anti-saccades (a block of 10-12 anti-saccades for 30 s × 20 blocks) per day over 3 weeks. Before and after training, horizontal eye movement, presaccadic potentials, and oxygenated hemoglobin concentration (oxy-Hb) in the prefrontal cortex during anti-saccades were tested in neck resting and 20° neck flexion conditions. In NRT and NFT, reaction time (-50 ms), percentage of erroneous saccades (-24%), and period between peak of presaccadic negativity and onset of spike potential (-16 ms) were significantly decreased through training. Only in NFT, after training, slight shortening of reaction time associated with neck flexion was recognized (-10 ms), and peak amplitude of presaccadic negativity was increased in both test neck conditions. Oxy-Hb was not significantly affected by trainings and test neck conditions. We demonstrated that in the elderly, anti-saccade training with both neck postures improved performance and facilitated related neural pathways. Moreover, training with neck flexion showed small but synergistic effects on performance and frontal activity. However, these trainings would be insufficient for elderly individuals to automatically control anti-saccade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoe Kiyota
- Department of Human Movement and Health, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa University, 13-1 Takara-machi, Kanazawa, 920-8640, Japan
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