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Tomazini F, Santos-Mariano AC, Dos S Andrade VF, Coelho DB, Bertuzzi R, Pereira G, Silva-Cavalcante MD, Lima-Silva AE. Caffeine ingestion increases endurance performance of trained male cyclists when riding against a virtual opponent without altering muscle fatigue. Eur J Appl Physiol 2022; 122:1915-1928. [PMID: 35612684 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-04969-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Caffeine improves cycling time trial (TT) performance; however, it is unknown whether caffeine is ergogenic when competing against other riders. The aim of this study was to investigate whether caffeine improves performance during a 4-km cycling TT when riding against a virtual opponent, and whether it is associated with increased muscle activation and at the expense of greater end-exercise central and peripheral fatigue. METHODS Using a randomized, crossover, and double-blind design, eleven well-trained cyclists completed a 4-km cycling TT alone without supplementation (CON), or against a virtual opponent after ingestion of placebo (OP-PLA) or caffeine (5 mg.kg-1, OP-CAF). Central and peripheral fatigue were quantified via the pre- to post-exercise decrease in voluntary activation and potentiated twitch force, respectively. Muscle activation was continually measured during the trial via electromyography activity. RESULTS Compared to CON, OP-PLA improved 4-km cycling TT performance (P = 0.018), and OP-CAF further improved performance when compared to OP-PLA (P = 0.050). Muscle activation was higher in OP-PLA and OP-CAF than in CON throughout the trial (P = 0.003). The pre- to post-exercise reductions in voluntary activation and potentiated twitch force were, however, similar between experimental conditions (P > 0.05). Compared to CON, OP-PLA increased the rating of perceived exertion during the first 2 km, but caffeine blunted this increase with no difference between the OP-CAF and CON conditions. CONCLUSIONS Caffeine is ergogenic when riding against a virtual opponent, but this is not due to greater muscle activation or at the expense of greater end-exercise central or peripheral fatigue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiano Tomazini
- Human Performance Research Group, Federal University of Technology Parana, Pedro Gusso Street, 2601, Neoville, Curitiba, PA, 81310-900, Brazil. .,Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, Brazil.
| | - Ana Carla Santos-Mariano
- Human Performance Research Group, Federal University of Technology Parana, Pedro Gusso Street, 2601, Neoville, Curitiba, PA, 81310-900, Brazil.,Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, Brazil
| | | | - Daniel B Coelho
- Centre of Engineering, Modelling and Applied Social Science, Federal University of ABC, Sao Bernardo do Campo, Brazil
| | - Romulo Bertuzzi
- Endurance Sports Research Group, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gleber Pereira
- Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, Brazil
| | | | - Adriano E Lima-Silva
- Human Performance Research Group, Federal University of Technology Parana, Pedro Gusso Street, 2601, Neoville, Curitiba, PA, 81310-900, Brazil.,Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, Brazil
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2
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Santos PS, Felippe LC, Ferreira GA, Learsi SK, Couto PG, Bertuzzi R, Pereira G, Lima-Silva AE. Caffeine increases peripheral fatigue in low- but not in high-performing cyclists. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2020; 45:1208-1215. [DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2019-0992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The influence of cyclists’ performance levels on caffeine-induced increases in neuromuscular fatigue after a 4-km cycling time trial (TT) was investigated. Nineteen cyclists performed a 4-km cycling TT 1 h after ingesting caffeine (5 mg·kg−1) or placebo (cellulose). Changes from baseline to after exercise in voluntary activation (VA) and potentiated 1 Hz force twitch (Qtw,pot) were used as markers of central and peripheral fatigue, respectively. Participants were classified as “high performing” (HP, n = 8) or “low performing” (LP, n = 8) in accordance with their performance in a placebo trial. Compared with placebo, caffeine increased the power, anaerobic mechanical power, and anaerobic work, reducing the time to complete the trial in both groups (p < 0.05). There was a group versus supplement and a group versus supplement versus trial interaction for Qtw,pot, in which the postexercise reduction was greater after caffeine compared with placebo in the LP group (Qtw,pot = −34% ± 17% vs. −21% ± 11%, p = 0.02) but not in the HP group (Qtw,pot = −22% ± 8% vs. −23% ± 10%, p = 0.64). There was no effect of caffeine on VA, but there was a group versus trial interaction with lower postexercise values in the LP group than in the HP group (p = 0.03). Caffeine-induced improvement in 4-km cycling TT performance seems to come at the expense of greater locomotor muscle fatigue in LP but not in HP cyclists. Novelty Caffeine improves exercise performance at the expense of a greater end-exercise peripheral fatigue in low-performing athletes. Caffeine-induced improvement in exercise performance does not affect end-exercise peripheral fatigue in high-performing athletes. High-performing athletes seem to have augmented tolerance to central fatigue during a high-intensity time trial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela S. Santos
- Human Performance Research Group, Academic Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Technology – Parana (UTFPR), Neoville, Curitiba, PR 81310-900, Brazil
- Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, PR 81531-980, Brazil
| | - Leandro C. Felippe
- Human Performance Research Group, Academic Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Technology – Parana (UTFPR), Neoville, Curitiba, PR 81310-900, Brazil
- Sport Science Research Group, Federal University of Pernambuco, Vitoria de Santo Antao, PE 55608-608, Brazil
| | - Guilherme A. Ferreira
- Human Performance Research Group, Academic Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Technology – Parana (UTFPR), Neoville, Curitiba, PR 81310-900, Brazil
- Sport Science Research Group, Federal University of Pernambuco, Vitoria de Santo Antao, PE 55608-608, Brazil
| | - Sara K. Learsi
- Human Performance Research Group, Academic Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Technology – Parana (UTFPR), Neoville, Curitiba, PR 81310-900, Brazil
- Sport Science Research Group, Federal University of Pernambuco, Vitoria de Santo Antao, PE 55608-608, Brazil
| | - Patrícia G. Couto
- Endurance Sports Research Group (GEDAE-USP), University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-030, Brazil
| | - Romulo Bertuzzi
- Endurance Sports Research Group (GEDAE-USP), University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-030, Brazil
| | - Gleber Pereira
- Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, PR 81531-980, Brazil
| | - Adriano E. Lima-Silva
- Human Performance Research Group, Academic Department of Physical Education, Federal University of Technology – Parana (UTFPR), Neoville, Curitiba, PR 81310-900, Brazil
- Sport Science Research Group, Federal University of Pernambuco, Vitoria de Santo Antao, PE 55608-608, Brazil
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3
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Martin K, Meeusen R, Thompson KG, Keegan R, Rattray B. Mental Fatigue Impairs Endurance Performance: A Physiological Explanation. Sports Med 2019; 48:2041-2051. [PMID: 29923147 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-018-0946-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Mental fatigue reflects a change in psychobiological state, caused by prolonged periods of demanding cognitive activity. It has been well documented that mental fatigue impairs cognitive performance; however, more recently, it has been demonstrated that endurance performance is also impaired by mental fatigue. The mechanism behind the detrimental effect of mental fatigue on endurance performance is poorly understood. Variables traditionally believed to limit endurance performance, such as heart rate, lactate accumulation and neuromuscular function, are unaffected by mental fatigue. Rather, it has been suggested that the negative impact of mental fatigue on endurance performance is primarily mediated by the greater perception of effort experienced by mentally fatigued participants. Pageaux et al. (Eur J Appl Physiol 114(5):1095-1105, 2014) first proposed that prolonged performance of a demanding cognitive task increases cerebral adenosine accumulation and that this accumulation may lead to the higher perception of effort experienced during subsequent endurance performance. This theoretical review looks at evidence to support and extend this hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristy Martin
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
| | - Romain Meeusen
- Vrije Universiteit Brussel Human Performance Research Group, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kevin G Thompson
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, Canberra, ACT, Australia
- New South Wales Institute of Sport, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Richard Keegan
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Ben Rattray
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, Canberra, ACT, Australia
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The Potential to Change Pacing and Performance During 4000-m Cycling Time Trials Using Hyperoxia and Inspired Gas-Content Deception. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2019; 14:949-957. [PMID: 30676139 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Determine if a series of trials with fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) content deception could improve 4000-m cycling time-trial (TT) performance. METHODS Fifteen trained male cyclists (mean ± SD: body mass 74.2 ± 8.0 kg; peak oxygen uptake 62 ± 6 mL.kg-1.min-1) completed six, 4000-m cycling TTs in a semi-randomised order. After a familiarisation TT, cyclists were informed in two initial trials they were inspiring normoxic air (NORM, FiO2: 0.21), however in one trial (deception condition) they inspired hyperoxic air (NORM-DEC, FiO2: 0.36). During two subsequent TTs, cyclists were informed they were inspiring hyperoxic air (HYPER, FiO2: 0.36), but in one trial normoxic air was inspired (HYPER-DEC). In the final TT (NORM-INFORM) the deception was revealed, and cyclists were asked to reproduce their best TT performance while inspiring normoxic air. RESULTS Greater power output and faster performances occurred when cyclists inspired hyperoxic air in both truthful (HYPER) and deceptive (NORM-DEC) trials compared to NORM (P < 0.001). However, performance only improved in NORM-INFORM (377 W [95% CI 325, 429]) vs NORM (352 W [299, 404]), P < 0.001) when participants (n = 4) completed the trials in the following order: NORM-DEC, NORM, HYPER-DEC, HYPER. CONCLUSIONS Cycling performance improved with acute exposure to hyperoxia. Mechanisms for the improvement were likely physiological, however improvement in a deception trial suggests an additional placebo effect may be present. Finally, a particular sequence of oxygen deception trials may have built psycho-physiological belief in cyclists such that performance improved in a subsequent normoxic trial.
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Ansdell P, Thomas K, Howatson G, Amann M, Goodall S. Deception Improves Time Trial Performance in Well-trained Cyclists without Augmented Fatigue. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2019; 50:809-816. [PMID: 29117071 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000001483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate the effects of feedback, in the form of a virtual avatar paced at 100% and 102% of baseline performance, on neuromuscular fatigue after a 4-km cycling time trial (TT). We hypothesized that improved cycling performance would occur because of the participants exceeding a previously established critical threshold and experiencing greater neuromuscular fatigue. METHODS After familiarization, 10 well-trained cyclists performed a baseline 4-km TT without feedback (BASE), followed by two 4-km TT where they raced against an avatar (set at 100% accurate [ACC] and 102% deception [DEC] of baseline power output) in a randomized and counterbalanced order. Before and after each TT, neuromuscular fatigue was assessed using maximal isometric voluntary contractions (MVC) of the quadriceps, and supramaximal electrical stimulation of the femoral nerve, during and 2 s after MVCs to assess voluntary activation and potentiated twitch force. Blood lactate was taken pretrials and posttrials and RPE was taken throughout each TT. RESULTS Time trial performance improved after deception of feedback compared with baseline performance (-5.8 s, P = 0.019). Blood lactate increased after DEC compared with BASE (+1.37 mmol·L, P = 0.019). Despite this, there was no difference in any measures of exercise-induced neuromuscular fatigue (P > 0.05). Similarly, RPE was not different between trials. CONCLUSIONS Well-trained male cyclists can improve cycling TT performance when competing against an avatar increased to 102% of a previously established best effort. However, this improvement is not associated with a measurable augmentation of neuromuscular fatigue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Ansdell
- Department of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Kevin Thomas
- Department of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Glyn Howatson
- Department of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UNITED KINGDOM.,Department of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Markus Amann
- Department of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Stuart Goodall
- Department of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UNITED KINGDOM
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6
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Konings MJ, Hettinga FJ. Pacing Decision Making in Sport and the Effects of Interpersonal Competition: A Critical Review. Sports Med 2018; 48:1829-1843. [PMID: 29799094 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-018-0937-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
An athlete's pacing strategy is widely recognised as an essential determinant for performance during individual events. Previous research focussed on the importance of internal bodily state feedback, revealed optimal pacing strategies in time-trial exercise, and explored concepts such as teleoanticipation and template formation. Recently, human-environment interactions have additionally been emphasized as a crucial determinant for pacing, yet how they affect pacing is not well understood. Therefore, this literature review focussed on exploring one of the most important human-environment interactions in sport competitions: the interaction among competitors. The existing literature regarding the regulation of exercise intensity and the effect of competition on pacing and performance is critically reviewed in this paper. The PubMed, CINAHL and Web of Science electronic databases were searched for studies about pacing in sports and (interpersonal) competition between January 2000 to October 2017, using the following combination of terms: (1) Sports AND (2) Pacing, resulting in 75 included papers. The behaviour of opponents was shown to be an essential determinant in the regulation of exercise intensity, based on both observational (N = 59) and experimental (N = 16) studies. However, adjustment in the pacing response related to other competitors appears to depend on the competitive situation and the current internal state of the athlete. The findings of this review emphasize the importance of what is happening around the athlete for the outcome of the decision-making process involved in pacing, and highlight the necessity to incorporate human-environment interactions into models that attempt to explain the regulation of exercise intensity in sports and exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco J Konings
- Sport, Performance and Fatigue Research Unit, School of Sport, Rehabilitation and Exercise Sciences, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester, Essex, CO4 3SQ, UK
| | - Florentina J Hettinga
- Sport, Performance and Fatigue Research Unit, School of Sport, Rehabilitation and Exercise Sciences, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester, Essex, CO4 3SQ, UK.
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7
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Wingfield G, Marino F, Skein M. The influence of knowledge of performance endpoint on pacing strategies, perception of effort, and neural activity during 30-km cycling time trials. Physiol Rep 2018; 6:e13892. [PMID: 30426727 PMCID: PMC6234147 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.13892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
It is understood that withholding information during exercise can alter performance during self-paced exercise, though less is known about neural activity during such exercise. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of withholding versus providing distance feedback on perception, muscular activation, and cerebral activity during cycling time trials (TT). Nine well-trained male cyclists randomly completed 2 x 30-km TT, with provision of performance information and distance feedback (known; KTT), and without performance information and remaining distance (unknown; UTT). Prefrontal cortex (PFC) hemoglobin concentration, electroencephalogy (EEG) responses of the parietal lobe (PL) and motor cortex (MC), and surface electromyogram (EMG) of the right thigh were monitored throughout the TTs, in addition to heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and power output (PO). Time to completion was shorter for the KTT compared to UTT (51.04 ± 3.26 vs. 49.25 ± 3.57 min, P = 0.01). There were no differences evident for RPE between conditions (P > 0.50). However, during the final 2 km, the KTT presented higher PO (P ≤ 0.05), HR (P = 0.03) and MC, and PL EEG activity (d = 0.51-0.71) in addition to increased tissue hemoglobin index (nTHI) and oxygen extraction (HHb) (d = 0.55-0.65) compared to the UTT. In conclusion, when withholding information pertaining to remaining distance, performance was reduced due to the application of a conservative pacing strategy. In addition, the increase in HHb across the PFC was strongly correlated with PO (r = 0.790; P < 0.001) suggesting knowledge about remaining distance may increase activation across the PFC. Further, it appears that changes within the PFC may play a role in the regulation of cycling performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Wingfield
- School of Exercise Science, Sport and HealthCharles Sturt UniversityBathurstNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Frank Marino
- School of Exercise Science, Sport and HealthCharles Sturt UniversityBathurstNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Melissa Skein
- School of Exercise Science, Sport and HealthCharles Sturt UniversityBathurstNew South WalesAustralia
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8
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Shei RJ, Paris HL, Beck CP, Chapman RF, Mickleborough TD. Repeated High-Intensity Cycling Performance Is Unaffected by Timing of Carbohydrate Ingestion. J Strength Cond Res 2018; 32:2243-2249. [PMID: 28902115 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Shei, R-J, Paris, HL, Beck, CP, Chapman, RF, and Mickleborough, TD. Repeated high-intensity cycling performance is unaffected by timing of carbohydrate ingestion. J Strength Cond Res 32(8): 2243-2249, 2018-To determine whether carbohydrate (CHO) feeding taken immediately before, early, or late in a series of high-intensity cycling exercises affected cycling performance. A total of 16 trained, male cyclists (>6 hours postprandial) performed 3-, 4-km cycling time trials (TT1, TT2, and TT3) separated by 15 minutes of active recovery on 4 separate occasions. Carbohydrate feeding (80 g) was given either before TT1 (PRE1), before TT2 (PRE2), before TT3 (PRE3), or not at all (control, CTL). Treatment order was randomized. Sweet placebo was given before the other TTs. Blood glucose (BG) concentration was measured before each trial. Mean power output (Pmean) and time to completion (TTC) were recorded. Pmean was higher in TT1 compared with TT2 (p = 0.001) and TT3 (p = 0.004) in all conditions, but no differences were observed between treatments. Time to completion was lower in TT1 compared with TT2 (p = 0.01), but no other differences in TTC (within or between treatments) were observed. Within CTL and PRE1, BG did not differ between TT1, TT2, and TT3. In PRE2, BG was significantly higher in TT2 compared with TT1 (p = 0.006), in TT3 compared with TT1 (p = 0.001), and in TT3 compared with TT2 (p = 0.01). In PRE3, BG was significantly higher in TT3 compared with TT1 and TT2 (p = 0.001 for both). Given that performance was not influenced by the timing of CHO ingestion, athletes engaging in repeated, high-intensity cycling exercise do not need to ingest CHO before- or between-exercise bouts; furthermore, athletes should refrain from ingesting CHO between bouts if they wish to avoid a rise in BG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ren-Jay Shei
- HH Morris Human Performance and Exercise Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health-Bloomington, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana.,Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama.,Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Hunter L Paris
- HH Morris Human Performance and Exercise Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health-Bloomington, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
| | - Christopher P Beck
- HH Morris Human Performance and Exercise Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health-Bloomington, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
| | - Robert F Chapman
- HH Morris Human Performance and Exercise Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health-Bloomington, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
| | - Timothy D Mickleborough
- HH Morris Human Performance and Exercise Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health-Bloomington, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
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9
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Effect of Intensified Endurance Training on Pacing and Performance in 4000-m Cycling Time Trials. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2018; 13:735-741. [PMID: 29035591 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2017-0287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Studies examining pacing strategies during 4000-m cycling time trials (TTs) typically ensure that participants are not prefatigued; however, competitive cyclists often undertake TTs when already fatigued. This study aimed to determine how TT pacing strategies and sprint characteristics of cyclists change during an intensified training period (mesocycle). Thirteen cyclists regularly competing in A- and B-grade cycling races and consistently training (>10 h/wk for 4 [1] y) completed a 6-wk training mesocycle. Participants undertook individually prescribed training, using training stress scores (TrainingPeaks, Boulder, CO), partitioned into a baseline week, a build week, 2 loading weeks (designed to elicit an overreached state), and 2 recovery weeks. Laboratory-based tests (15-s sprint and TT) and Recovery-Stress Questionnaire (RESTQ-52) responses were repeatedly undertaken over the mesocycle. TT power output increased during recovery compared with baseline and loading weeks (P = .001) with >6-W increases in mean power output (MPO) detected for 400-m sections (10% bins) from 1200 to 4000 m in recovery weeks. Decreases in peak heart rate (P < .001) during loading weeks and postexercise blood lactate (P = .005) during loading week 2 and recovery week 1 were detected. Compared with baseline, 15-s sprint MPO declined during loading and recovery weeks (P < .001). An interaction was observed between RESTQ-52 total stress score with a 15-s sprint (P = .003) and with a TT MPO (P = .04), indicating that participants who experienced greater stress during loading weeks exhibited reduced performance. To conclude, intensified endurance training diminished sprint performance but improved 4000-m TT performance, with a subtle change in MPO evident over the last 70% of TTs.
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10
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Woods AL, Rice AJ, Garvican-Lewis LA, Wallett AM, Lundy B, Rogers MA, Welvaert M, Halson S, McKune A, Thompson KG. The effects of intensified training on resting metabolic rate (RMR), body composition and performance in trained cyclists. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0191644. [PMID: 29444097 PMCID: PMC5812577 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Recent research has demonstrated decreases in resting metabolic rate (RMR), body composition and performance following a period of intensified training in elite athletes, however the underlying mechanisms of change remain unclear. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate how an intensified training period, designed to elicit overreaching, affects RMR, body composition, and performance in trained endurance athletes, and to elucidate underlying mechanisms. Method Thirteen (n = 13) trained male cyclists completed a six-week training program consisting of a “Baseline” week (100% of regular training load), a “Build” week (~120% of Baseline load), two “Loading” weeks (~140, 150% of Baseline load, respectively) and two “Recovery” weeks (~80% of Baseline load). Training comprised of a combination of laboratory based interval sessions and on-road cycling. RMR, body composition, energy intake, appetite, heart rate variability (HRV), cycling performance, biochemical markers and mood responses were assessed at multiple time points throughout the six-week period. Data were analysed using a linear mixed modeling approach. Results The intensified training period elicited significant decreases in RMR (F(5,123.36) = 12.0947, p = <0.001), body mass (F(2,19.242) = 4.3362, p = 0.03), fat mass (F(2,20.35) = 56.2494, p = <0.001) and HRV (F(2,22.608) = 6.5212, p = 0.005); all of which improved following a period of recovery. A state of overreaching was induced, as identified by a reduction in anaerobic performance (F(5,121.87) = 8.2622, p = <0.001), aerobic performance (F(5,118.26) = 2.766, p = 0.02) and increase in total mood disturbance (F(5, 110.61) = 8.1159, p = <0.001). Conclusion Intensified training periods elicit greater energy demands in trained cyclists, which, if not sufficiently compensated with increased dietary intake, appears to provoke a cascade of metabolic, hormonal and neural responses in an attempt to restore homeostasis and conserve energy. The proactive monitoring of energy intake, power output, mood state, body mass and HRV during intensified training periods may alleviate fatigue and attenuate the observed decrease in RMR, providing more optimal conditions for a positive training adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L Woods
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce ACT, Australia.,Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce ACT, Australia
| | - Anthony J Rice
- Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce ACT, Australia
| | - Laura A Garvican-Lewis
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce ACT, Australia.,Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce ACT, Australia.,Mary Mackillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Alice M Wallett
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce ACT, Australia.,Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce ACT, Australia
| | - Bronwen Lundy
- Department of Nutrition, Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce ACT, Australia
| | - Margot A Rogers
- Department of Nutrition, Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce ACT, Australia
| | - Marijke Welvaert
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce ACT, Australia
| | - Shona Halson
- Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce ACT, Australia
| | - Andrew McKune
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce ACT, Australia.,Discipline of Biokinetics, Exercise and Leisure Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Kevin G Thompson
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce ACT, Australia
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11
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Stone MR, Thomas K, Wilkinson M, Stevenson E, St. Clair Gibson A, Jones AM, Thompson KG. Exploring the performance reserve: Effect of different magnitudes of power output deception on 4,000 m cycling time-trial performance. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0173120. [PMID: 28278174 PMCID: PMC5344378 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0173120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The aim of the present study was to investigate whether a magnitude of deception of 5% in power output would lead to a greater reduction in the amount of time taken for participants to complete a 4000 m cycling TT than a magnitude of deception of 2% in power output, which we have previously shown can lead to a small change in 4000 m cycling TT performance. Methods Ten trained male cyclists completed four, 4000 m cycling TTs. The first served as a habituation and the second as a baseline for future trials. During trials three and four participants raced against a pacer which was set, in a randomized order, at a mean power output equal to 2% (+2% TT) or 5% (+5% TT) higher than their baseline performance. However participants were misled into believing that the power output of the pacer was an accurate representation of their baseline performance on both occasions. Cardiorespiratory responses were recorded throughout each TT, and used to estimate energy contribution from aerobic and anaerobic metabolism. Results Participants were able to finish the +2% TT in a significantly shorter duration than at baseline (p = 0.01), with the difference in performance likely attributable to a greater anaerobic contribution to total power output (p = 0.06). There was no difference in performance between the +5% TT and +2% TT or baseline trials. Conclusions Results suggest that a performance reserve is conserved, involving anaerobic energy contribution, which can be utilised given a belief that the exercise will be sustainable however there is an upper limit to how much deception can be tolerated. These findings have implications for performance enhancement in athletes and for our understanding of the nature of fatigue during high-intensity exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R. Stone
- Centre for Human Performance, Health and Wellbeing, Buckinghamshire New University, High Wycombe, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin Thomas
- Faculty of Health & Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Wilkinson
- Faculty of Health & Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Emma Stevenson
- Institute of Cellular Science, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Alan St. Clair Gibson
- School of Health, Sport and Human Performance, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - Andrew M. Jones
- School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin G. Thompson
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise (UCRISE), University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
- * E-mail:
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12
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Skorski S, Abbiss CR. The Manipulation of Pace within Endurance Sport. Front Physiol 2017; 8:102. [PMID: 28289392 PMCID: PMC5326767 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
In any athletic event, the ability to appropriately distribute energy is essential to prevent premature fatigue prior to the completion of the event. In sport science literature this is termed "pacing." Within the past decade, research aiming to better understand the underlying mechanisms influencing the selection of an athlete's pacing during exercise has dramatically increased. It is suggested that pacing is a combination of anticipation, knowledge of the end-point, prior experience and sensory feedback. In order to better understand the role each of these factors have in the regulation of pace, studies have often manipulated various conditions known to influence performance such as the feedback provided to participants, the starting strategy or environmental conditions. As with all research there are several factors that should be considered in the interpretation of results from these studies. Thus, this review aims at discussing the pacing literature examining the manipulation of: (i) energy expenditure and pacing strategies, (ii) kinematics or biomechanics, (iii) exercise environment, and (iv) fatigue development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Skorski
- Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, Saarland University Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Chris R Abbiss
- Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, School of Exercise and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University Joondalup, WA, Australia
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13
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Shei RJ, Adamic EM, Raglin JS, Thompson KG, Mickleborough TD. Commentary: Improvements in Cycling Time Trial Performance Are Not Sustained Following the Acute Provision of Challenging and Deceptive Feedback. Front Physiol 2017; 8:31. [PMID: 28179888 PMCID: PMC5263154 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ren-Jay Shei
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Emily M Adamic
- Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health-Bloomington, Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana, USA
| | - John S Raglin
- Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health-Bloomington, Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana, USA
| | - Kevin G Thompson
- Faculty of Health, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Timothy D Mickleborough
- Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health-Bloomington, Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana, USA
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14
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Taylor D, Smith MF. The Influence of Mid-Event Deception on Psychophysiological Status and Pacing Can Persist across Consecutive Disciplines and Enhance Self-paced Multi-modal Endurance Performance. Front Physiol 2017; 8:6. [PMID: 28174540 PMCID: PMC5258730 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To examine the effects of deceptively aggressive bike pacing on performance, pacing, and associated physiological and perceptual responses during simulated sprint-distance triathlon. Methods: Ten non-elite, competitive male triathletes completed three simulated sprint-distance triathlons (0.75 km swim, 500 kJ bike, 5 km run), the first of which established personal best “baseline” performance (BL). During the remaining two trials athletes maintained a cycling power output 5% greater than BL, before completing the run as quickly as possible. However, participants were informed of this aggressive cycling strategy before and during only one of the two trials (HON). Prior to the alternate trial (DEC), participants were misinformed that cycling power output would equal that of BL, with on-screen feedback manipulated to reinforce this deception. Results: Compared to BL, a significantly faster run performance was observed following DEC cycling (p < 0.05) but not following HON cycling (1348 ± 140 vs. 1333 ± 129 s and 1350 ± 135 s, for BL, DEC, and HON, respectively). As such, magnitude-based inferences suggest HON running was more likely to be slower, than faster, compared to BL, and that DEC running was probably faster than both BL and HON. Despite a trend for overall triathlon performance to be quicker during DEC (4339 ± 395 s) compared to HON (4356 ± 384 s), the only significant and almost certainly meaningful differences were between each of these trials and BL (4465 ± 420 s; p < 0.05). Generally, physiological and perceptual strain increased with higher cycling intensities, with little, if any, substantial difference in physiological and perceptual response during each triathlon run. Conclusions: The present study is the first to show that mid-event pace deception can have a practically meaningful effect on multi-modal endurance performance, though the relative importance of different psychophysiological and emotional responses remains unclear. Whilst our findings support the view that some form of anticipatory “template” may be used by athletes to interpret levels of psychophysiological and emotional strain, and regulate exercise intensity accordingly, they would also suggest that individual constructs such as RPE and affect may be more loosely tied with pacing than previously suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Taylor
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Lincoln Lincoln, UK
| | - Mark F Smith
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Lincoln Lincoln, UK
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15
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Davies MJ, Clark B, Welvaert M, Skorski S, Garvican-Lewis LA, Saunders P, Thompson KG. Effect of Environmental and Feedback Interventions on Pacing Profiles in Cycling: A Meta-Analysis. Front Physiol 2016; 7:591. [PMID: 27994554 PMCID: PMC5136559 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In search of their optimal performance athletes will alter their pacing strategy according to intrinsic and extrinsic physiological, psychological and environmental factors. However, the effect of some of these variables on pacing and exercise performance remains somewhat unclear. Therefore, the aim of this meta-analysis was to provide an overview as to how manipulation of different extrinsic factors affects pacing strategy and exercise performance. Only self-paced exercise studies that provided control and intervention group(s), reported trial variance for power output, disclosed the type of feedback received or withheld, and where time-trial power output data could be segmented into start, middle and end sections; were included in the meta-analysis. Studies with similar themes were grouped together to determine the mean difference (MD) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) between control and intervention trials for: hypoxia, hyperoxia, heat-stress, pre-cooling, and various forms of feedback. A total of 26 studies with cycling as the exercise modality were included in the meta-analysis. Of these, four studies manipulated oxygen availability, eleven manipulated heat-stress, four implemented pre-cooling interventions and seven studies manipulated various forms of feedback. Mean power output (MPO) was significantly reduced in the middle and end sections (p < 0.05), but not the start section of hypoxia and heat-stress trials compared to the control trials. In contrast, there was no significant change in trial or section MPO for hyperoxic or pre-cooling conditions compared to the control condition (p > 0.05). Negative feedback improved overall trial MPO and MPO in the middle section of trials (p < 0.05), while informed feedback improved overall trial MPO (p < 0.05). However, positive, neutral and no feedback had no significant effect on overall trial or section MPO (p > 0.05). The available data suggests exercise regulation in hypoxia and heat-stress is delayed in the start section of trials, before significant reductions in MPO occur in the middle and end of the trial. Additionally, negative feedback involving performance deception may afford an upward shift in MPO in the middle section of the trial improving overall performance. Finally, performance improvements can be retained when participants are informed of the deception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Davies
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and ExerciseBruce, ACT, Australia; Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of SportBruce, ACT, Australia
| | - Bradley Clark
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Bruce, ACT, Australia
| | - Marijke Welvaert
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and ExerciseBruce, ACT, Australia; Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of SportBruce, ACT, Australia
| | - Sabrina Skorski
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and ExerciseBruce, ACT, Australia; Institute of Sports and Preventive Medicine, Saarland UniversitySaarbrücken, Germany
| | - Laura A Garvican-Lewis
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and ExerciseBruce, ACT, Australia; Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of SportBruce, ACT, Australia; Mary Mackillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic UniversityMelbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Philo Saunders
- Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport Bruce, ACT, Australia
| | - Kevin G Thompson
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Bruce, ACT, Australia
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16
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Jones HS, Williams EL, Marchant D, Sparks SA, Bridge CA, Midgley AW, Mc Naughton LR. Improvements in Cycling Time Trial Performance Are Not Sustained Following the Acute Provision of Challenging and Deceptive Feedback. Front Physiol 2016; 7:399. [PMID: 27713701 PMCID: PMC5031686 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2016] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The provision of performance-related feedback during exercise is acknowledged as an influential external cue used to inform pacing decisions. The provision of this feedback in a challenging or deceptive context allows research to explore how feedback can be used to improve performance and influence perceptual responses. However, the effects of deception on both acute and residual responses have yet to be explored, despite potential application for performance enhancement. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of challenging and deceptive feedback on perceptual responses and performance in self-paced cycling time trials (TT) and explored whether changes in performance are sustained in a subsequent TT following the disclosure of the deception. Seventeen trained male cyclists were assigned to either an accurate or deceptive feedback group and performed four 16.1 km cycling TTs; (1 and 2) ride-alone baseline TTs where a fastest baseline (FBL) performance was identified, (3) a TT against a virtual avatar representing 102% of their FBL performance (PACER), and (4) a subsequent ride-alone TT (SUB). The deception group, however, were initially informed that the avatar accurately represented their FBL, but prior to SUB were correctly informed of the nature of the avatar. Affect, self-efficacy and RPE were measured every quartile. Both groups performed PACER faster than FBL and SUB (p < 0.05) and experienced lower affect (p = 0.016), lower self-efficacy (p = 0.011), and higher RPE (p < 0.001) in PACER than FBL. No significant differences were found between FBL and SUB for any variable. The presence of the pacer rather than the manipulation of performance beliefs acutely facilitates TT performance and perceptual responses. Revealing that athletes' performance beliefs were falsely negative due to deceptive feedback provision has no effect on subsequent perceptions or performance. A single experiential exposure may not be sufficient to produce meaningful changes in the performance beliefs of trained individuals beyond the acute setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hollie S. Jones
- School of Psychology, University of Central LancashirePreston, UK
| | | | - David Marchant
- Department of Sport and Physical Activity, Edge Hill UniversityOrmskirk, UK
| | - S. Andy Sparks
- Department of Sport and Physical Activity, Edge Hill UniversityOrmskirk, UK
| | - Craig A. Bridge
- Department of Sport and Physical Activity, Edge Hill UniversityOrmskirk, UK
| | - Adrian W. Midgley
- Department of Sport and Physical Activity, Edge Hill UniversityOrmskirk, UK
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