[Breastfeeding in women with gestational diabetes]

Is Secretory Activation Delayed in Women with Type Two Diabetes? A Pilot Study

(1) Background: Breastfeeding duration may be reduced in women with type 2 diabetes. Delayed secretory activation (SA) is associated with poorer breastfeeding outcomes; however, no prior studies have examined SA in women with type 2 diabetes. This pilot study aimed to assess SA in women with type 2 diabetes by assessing breastmilk constituents. Secondary aims were to assess breastfeeding rates postpartum, and contributory factors. (2) Methods: A prospective cohort of pregnant women with type 2 diabetes (n = 18) and two control groups with age- and parity-matched nondiabetic pregnant women (body mass index (BMI)) matched (n = 18) or normal-range BMI (n = 18)) were recruited. Breastmilk constituents (citrate, lactose, protein, and fat) were measured twice daily for 5 days postpartum and compared between groups. Associations between peripartum variables, breastmilk constituents, and breastfeeding at 4 months postpartum were explored. (3) Results: Women with type 2 diabetes had a slower increase in breastmilk citrate concentration postpartum, indicative of delayed SA, compared to both control groups. Higher predelivery insulin doses in women with type 2 diabetes were associated with increasing time to SA. Both women with type 2 diabetes and BMI-matched controls were less likely to fully breastfeed at 4 months, compared with normal-BMI controls. (4) Conclusion: SA is delayed in women with type 2 diabetes when compared to BMI-matched and normal-BMI women. Women with type 2 diabetes are less likely to fully breastfeed, at hospital discharge and by 4 months postpartum, compared to women with normal-BMI.

Interventions to support women with overweight or obesity or gestational diabetes mellitus to initiate and continue breastfeeding: Systematic review and meta-analysis

Exclusive breastfeeding is recommended for the first 6 months of life and benefits both mother and child. Women with overweight/obesity or gestational diabetes are at risk for poor breastfeeding outcomes. This review evaluates the efficacy of breastfeeding interventions in these at-risk populations. The review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement. Five databases were searched for interventions from inception to May 2020. Nineteen trials including 2,740 participants, 226 of which were dyads, were included. Intervention increased any breastfeeding at ≥6 months (OR 1.43, 95% CI [1.05-1.95]), and women in the intervention group were 90% more likely to exclusively breastfeed at 1-2 weeks (OR 1.9, 95% CI [1.17-3.09]) and more than twice as likely to exclusively breastfeed at 4-6 weeks (OR 2.23, 95% CI [1.27-3.90]) within the sensitivity analysis. These findings support breastfeeding interventions improving exclusive early postpartum breastfeeding and any breastfeeding from 6 months in women with gestational diabetes or obesity/overweight. Further randomized controlled trials with harmonized breastfeeding outcome reporting are needed to confirm efficacy.

Influence of exclusive breastfeeding on hippocampal structure, satiety responsiveness, and weight status

Longer exclusive breastfeeding duration has been associated with differences in neural development, better satiety responsiveness, and decreased risk for childhood obesity. Given hippocampus sensitivity to diet and potential role in the integration of satiety signals, hippocampus may play a role in these relationships. We conducted a secondary analysis of 149, 7–11‐year‐olds (73 males) who participated in one of five studies that assessed neural responses to food cues. Hippocampal grey matter volume was extracted from structural scans using CAT12, weight status was assessed using age‐ and sex‐adjusted body mass index (%BMI_p85), and parents reported exclusive breastfeeding duration and satiety responsiveness (Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire). Separate path models for left and right hippocampus tested: (1) the direct effect of exclusive breastfeeding on satiety responsiveness and its indirect effect through hippocampal grey matter volume; (2) the direct effect of hippocampal grey matter volume on %BMI_p85 and its indirect effect through satiety responsiveness. %BMI_p85 was adjusted for maternal education, yearly income, and premature birth while hippocampal grey matter volume was adjusted for total intercranial volume, age, and study from which data were extracted. Longer exclusive breastfeeding duration was associated with greater bilateral hippocampal grey matter volumes. In addition, better satiety responsiveness and greater left hippocampal grey matter volume were both associated with lower %BMI_p85. However, hippocampal grey matter volumes were not associated with satiety responsiveness. Although no relationship was found between breastfeeding and child weight status, these results highlight the potential impact of exclusive breastfeeding duration on the hippocampal structure.

Longer exclusive breastfeeding was associated with greater bilateral hippocampal grey matter volume but not satiety responsiveness in children.

While exclusive breastfeeding duration was not directly associated with weight status, better satiety responsiveness and greater left hippocampal grey matter volume were both associated with lower weight status in children.

This study highlights the potential impact of exclusive breastfeeding on hippocampal structure, providing a possible mechanism in which breastfeeding may reduce the risk for excess childhood weight gain.

Future studies need to determine the relative impact that complementary periods of breastfeeding may have on regional brain development and satiety responsiveness.

Maternal gestational diabetes and infant feeding, nutrition and growth: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a major health problem, with increased risks of obesity and diabetes in offspring. However, little is known about the effect of GDM on infant feeding, nutrition and growth, and whether these factors play a role in mediating these risks. We systematically reviewed evidence for the effect of GDM on infant feeding, nutrition and growth. We searched MEDLINE, Web-of-Science, Embase, CINAHL and CENTRAL for studies that reported outcomes in infants <2 years who were and were not exposed to GDM. Studies of pre-gestational diabetes were excluded. Meta-analysis was performed for three epochs (1–6, 7–12, 13–24 months), using inverse-variance, fixed-effects methods. Primary outcomes were energy intake (kJ) and BMI (kg/m2). Twenty-five studies and 308 455 infants were included. Infants exposed to GDM, compared with those not exposed, had similar BMI at age 1–6 months (standardised mean difference (SMD) = 0·01, 95 % CI −0·04, 0·06; P = 0·69) and 7–12 months (SMD = 0·04, 95 % CI −0·01, 0·10; P = 0·09), reduced length at 1–6 and 7–12 months, increased whole-body fat at 1–6 months, higher rates of formula supplementation in hospital, shorter duration of breast-feeding and decreased rates of continued breast-feeding at 12 months. Breast milk of women with GDM had lower protein content. There was no association between GDM and infant weight and skinfold thickness. No data were available for nutritional intake and outcomes at 13–24 months. Low- or very low-quality evidence suggests GDM is not associated with altered BMI in infancy, but is associated with increased fat mass, high rates of formula use and decreased duration of breast-feeding.

Combined Influence of Gestational Diabetes and Gestational Weight Gain on Exclusive Breastfeeding

Background: Over half of pregnant women in the United States do not meet the recommended gestational weight gain (GWG). In addition, the prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is increasing. We examined the combined influence of GDM and GWG on breastfeeding practices on exclusive breastfeeding during the neonatal period and at 3 months postpartum. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was performed on 173,603 women from the pregnancy risk assessment monitoring system, 2009-2015. Descriptive statistics and multivariable logistic regression modeling were performed. Results: The prevalence of GDM was 9.5%. Only 30.7% of women had weight gain within the Institute of Medicine (IOM) recommended guidelines. Approximately 21.7% and 10.3% of the participants exclusively breastfed their infants during the neonatal period and at 3 months postpartum, respectively. After adjusting for potential confounders, there was a significant multiplicative interaction between GWG and GDM on exclusive breastfeeding during the neonatal period and at 3 months postpartum. Among women with normal and excessive GWG, the odds of exclusively breastfeeding during the neonatal period were lower for women with GDM compared with women without GDM (odds ratio, 95% confidence interval: 0.74, 0.64-0.85 and 0.75, 0.66-0.85, respectively). Similarly, among women with normal and excessive GWG, the odds of exclusively breastfeeding at 3 months postpartum were lower for women with GDM compared to women without GDM (0.67, 0.55-0.81 and 0.71, 0.60-0.85, respectively). Conclusion: With the increasing prevalence of GDM and weight gain outside the IOM guidelines, it is critical to identify populations at risk and to promote exclusive breastfeeding practices.

Prepregnancy Diabetes and Breastfeeding Cessation Among Black Women in the United States

Background: The incidence of diabetes is rising, and with it, the number of pregnancies affected by diabetes. U.S. black women have a disproportionately high prevalence of diabetes and lower rates of breastfeeding. Objective: The objective of this study was to quantify the relationship between diabetes before pregnancy and breastfeeding duration among black women in the United States. Materials and Methods: We analyzed women from the Black Women's Health Study (N = 59,000) to assess the relationship between prepregnancy diabetes and time to breastfeeding cessation occurring up to 24 months postdelivery using Kaplan-Meier survival curves, log rank tests, and Cox proportional hazards models. The study population included primiparous women with births between 1995 and 2009 (N = 3,404). Obesity, hypertension before pregnancy, and family history of diabetes were examined for effect modification. Results: Survival curves demonstrated a markedly reduced duration of breastfeeding in women who had been diagnosed with prepregnancy diabetes (p < 0.01). The hazard ratio for breastfeeding cessation for women with prepregnancy diabetes was 1.5 (95% confidence interval 1.1-2.0) compared with women without prepregnancy diabetes after control for age, body mass index (BMI) at age 18, prepregnancy BMI, other metabolic factors, demographics, and health behaviors. Conclusions: Our results suggest that prepregnancy diabetes is a strong predictor of curtailed breastfeeding duration, even after control for BMI. This underscores the need for targeted lactation support for diabetic women.

Gestational Diabetes and Breastfeeding Outcomes: A Systematic Review

Studies of gestational diabetes mellitus in relation to breastfeeding are limited, while their findings are inconsistent. This systematic review was conducted to assess the associations between gestational diabetes and breastfeeding outcomes. An initial search of PubMed, Web of Science, and ProQuest identified 518 studies, and after applying the inclusion criteria, 16 studies were finally included in the review. Four studies reported that “exclusive/predominant/full breastfeeding” rates at discharge were lower in mothers with gestational diabetes than in those without gestational diabetes, and 2 studies showed a shorter duration of “exclusive/predominant breastfeeding” in the former than in the latter. However, most studies found no apparent difference in the rate of “breastfeeding initiation”, “any breastfeeding” duration, or “any breastfeeding” in hospital and at discharge between mothers with and without gestational diabetes. In summary, mothers with gestational diabetes were less likely to exclusively breastfeed their infants and may have a shorter breastfeeding duration than other mothers.

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Reduces Breastfeeding Duration: A Prospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and its complications are major concerns because of the negative effects of GDM during antenatal period and on the future health of mothers and infants. Breastfeeding is beneficial for GDM mothers and their babies to reduce future health risks. Little is known about the link between GDM and the duration of "any" breastfeeding. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between GDM and the duration for which Vietnamese women breastfeed their babies postpartum.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A prospective cohort of 2,030 pregnant women between 24 and 28 weeks of gestation was recruited. GDM status was determined using a 75 g oral glucose tolerance test. Included mothers were then followed up from discharge after childbirth until 12 months postpartum to determine their breastfeeding duration. Kaplan-Meier estimates, log-rank tests, logistic and Cox regression models were used to examine the association between GDM and breastfeeding outcomes.

RESULTS

In our cohort, 94.4% of all women reported "any" breastfeeding at discharge and 72.9% of women were still breastfeeding at 12 months postpartum. The risk of early breastfeeding cessation was higher in GDM women than their non-GDM counterparts after adjustment for demographic factors (hazard ratios [HR] = 1.39, 95% confidence intervals [CI] = 1.13-1.71, p = 0.002), and all potential confounding factors (HR = 1.38, 95% CI = 1.12-1.70, p = 0.002). There were no significant differences in breastfeeding outcomes at discharge (early initiation, prelacteal feeding, and "any" breastfeeding rate) between GDM and non-GDM mothers.

CONCLUSIONS

GDM was associated with shorter breastfeeding duration. Women with GDM require ongoing support after hospital discharge to maintain long-term breastfeeding.

Breastfeeding after Gestational Diabetes: Does Perceived Benefits Mediate the Relationship?

Introduction. Breastfeeding is recognized as one of the best ways to decrease infant mortality and morbidity. However, women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) may have breastfeeding barriers due to the increased risk of neonatal and pregnancy complications. While the prevalence of GDM is increasing worldwide, it is important to understand the full implications of GDM on breastfeeding outcomes. The current study aims to investigate the (1) direct effect of GDM on breastfeeding duration and (2) indirect effect of GDM on breastfeeding duration through perceived benefits of breastfeeding. Methods. Prospective cohort data from the Infant Feeding and Practices Study II was analyzed (N = 4,902). Structural equation modeling estimated direct and indirect effects. Results. Perceived benefits of breastfeeding directly influenced breastfeeding duration (β = 0.392, p ≤ 0.001). GDM was not directly associated with breastfeeding duration or perceived benefits of breastfeeding. Similarly, GDM did not have an indirect effect on breastfeeding duration through perceived benefits of breastfeeding. Conclusions. Perceived benefits of breastfeeding are an important factor associated with breastfeeding duration. Maternal and child health care professionals should enhance breastfeeding education efforts.

Placental Nutrient Transport in Gestational Diabetic Pregnancies

Maternal obesity during pregnancy is rising and is associated with increased risk of developing gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), defined as glucose intolerance first diagnosed in pregnancy (1). Fetal growth is determined by the maternal nutrient supply and placental nutrient transfer capacity. GDM-complicated pregnancies are more likely to be complicated by fetal overgrowth or excess adipose deposition in utero. Infants born from GDM mothers have an increased risk of developing cardiovascular and metabolic disorders later in life. Diverse factors, such as ethnicity, age, fetal sex, clinical treatment for glycemic control, gestational weight gain, and body mass index among others, represent a challenge for studying underlying mechanisms in GDM subjects. Determining the individual roles of glucose intolerance, obesity, and other factors on placental function and fetal growth remains a challenge. This review provides an overview of changes in placental macronutrient transport observed in human pregnancies complicated by GDM. Improved knowledge and understanding of the alterations in placenta function that lead to pathological fetal growth will allow for development of new therapeutic interventions and treatments to improve pregnancy outcomes and lifelong health for the mother and her children.

Infant feeding patterns in families with a diabetes history - observations from The Environmental Determinants of Diabetes in the Young (TEDDY) birth cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To assess the association between diabetes family history and infant feeding patterns.

DESIGN

Data on breast-feeding duration and age at first introduction of cow's milk and gluten-containing cereals were collected in 3-month intervals during the first 24 months of life.

SETTING

Data from the multicentre TEDDY (The Environmental Determinants of Diabetes in the Young) study, including centres in the USA, Sweden, Finland and Germany.

SUBJECTS

A total of 7026 children, including children with a mother with type 1 diabetes (T1D; n 292), gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM; n 404) or without diabetes but with a father and/or sibling with T1D (n 464) and children without diabetes family history (n 5866).

RESULTS

While exclusive breast-feeding ended earlier and cow's milk was introduced earlier in offspring of mothers with T1D and GDM, offspring of non-diabetic mothers but a father and/or sibling with T1D were exclusively breast-fed longer and introduced to cow's milk later compared with infants without diabetes family history. The association between maternal diabetes and shorter exclusive breast-feeding duration was attenuated after adjusting for clinical variables (delivery mode, gestational age, Apgar score and birth weight). Country-specific analyses revealed differences in these associations, with Sweden showing the strongest and Finland showing no association between maternal diabetes and breast-feeding duration.

CONCLUSIONS

Family history of diabetes is associated with infant feeding patterns; however, the associations clearly differ by country, indicating that cultural differences are important determinants of infant feeding behaviour. These findings need to be considered when developing strategies to improve feeding patterns in infants with a diabetes family history.

Unsolved Mysteries of the Human Mammary Gland: Defining and Redefining the Critical Questions from the Lactation Consultant's Perspective

Despite advances in knowledge about human lactation, clinicians face many problems when advising mothers who are experiencing breastfeeding difficulties that do not respond to normal management strategies. Primary insufficient milk production is now being acknowledged, but incidence rates have not been well studied. Many women have known histories of infertility, polycystic ovary syndrome, obesity, hypertension, insulin resistance, thyroid dysfunction, hyperandrogenism or other hormonal imbalances, while others have no obvious risk factors. Some present with obviously abnormal breasts that are pubescent, tuberous/tubular or asymmetric in shape, raising the question of insufficient mammary gland tissue. Other women have breasts that appear within normal limits yet do not lactate normally. Endocrine disruptors may underlie some of these cases but their impact on human milk production has not been well explored. Similarly, any problem with prolactin such as a deficiency in serum prolactin or receptor number, receptor resistance, or poor bioavailability or bioactivity could underlie some cases of insufficient lactation, yet these possibilities are rarely investigated. A weak or suppressed milk ejection reflex, often assumed to be psychosomatic, could be related to thyroid dysfunction or caused by downstream post-receptor pathway problems. In the absence of sufficient data regarding these situations, desperate mothers may turn to non-evidence-based remedies, sometimes at considerable cost and unknown risk. Research targeted to these clinical dilemmas is critical in order to develop evidence-based strategies and increase breastfeeding duration and success rates.

Beneficial effects of breastfeeding in women with gestational diabetes mellitus

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) increases the future risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). There is now a growing evidence that breastfeeding has short- and long-term health benefits for mothers with GDM. Mothers with GDM who breastfeed have improved lipid and glucose metabolic profiles for the first 3 months after birth. However, women with GDM are less likely to breastfeed and, if they do, breastfeeding is usually continued for a shorter duration compared with women without GDM. One long-term prospective study followed women with GDM from delivery for up to 19 years postpartum, and found that breastfeeding for ≥3 months reduced the risk of T2DM and delayed the development of T2DM by a further 10 years compared with breastfeeding for <3 months. However, the physiological mechanisms underlying the protective effects of breastfeeding are still unknown, even though it is important to gain a full understanding of the pathways involved in these effects. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the recent developments in the field of GDM and breastfeeding. We reviewed data from animal experiments and human studies. We also provide insight into the molecular pathways and describe promising topics for future research.

Breastfeeding in women with diabetes: lower rates despite greater rewards. A population-based study

AIMS

To explore intention to breastfeed and breastfeeding rates in hospital and on discharge across women with pre-gestational or gestational diabetes mellitus, or no diabetes.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort analysis was conducted using data from four Ontario hospitals. Women who delivered a viable infant between 1 April 2008 and 31 March 2010 were included in the study. Unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios were calculated for each outcome measure and were used to compare the breastfeeding rates among women with and without diabetes.

RESULTS

After controlling for potential confounders, women with insulin-treated diabetes were less likely to intend to breastfeed, when compared with women without diabetes (adjusted odds ratio 0.49, 95% CI 0.27-0.89). In hospital, women with insulin-treated diabetes were least likely to breastfeed (odds ratio 0.42, 95% CI 0.26-0.67), followed by women with non-insulin-treated diabetes (odds ratio 0.50, 95% CI 0.26-0.96) and women with gestational diabetes (odds ratio 0.77, 95% CI 0.68-0.87) when compared with women without diabetes. On discharge, women with insulin-treated diabetes were least likely to breastfeed (odds ratio 0.38, 95% CI 0.24-0.60), followed by women with gestational diabetes (odds ratio 0.75, 95% CI 0.66-0.85); rates of breastfeeding among women with non-insulin-treated diabetes were comparable on discharge with those of women without diabetes. Women seeking care from an antenatal provider other than a physician were 2-3 times more likely to breastfeed in hospital and on discharge.

CONCLUSIONS

Women with insulin-treated diabetes had the poorest outcomes with respect to breastfeeding rates. Gestational and non-insulin-treated diabetes were associated with lower rates of breastfeeding in hospital, while gestational diabetes was additionally associated with lower breastfeeding rates on discharge.

Relationship between lactation duration and insulin and glucose response among women with prior gestational diabetes

BACKGROUND

Few studies have investigated whether favorable effects of lactation persist after weaning and protect women with prior gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) against later development of insulin resistance and insulin secretion defects.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the impact of lactation duration on insulin and glucose response among women with prior GDM.

DESIGN/METHODS

The study group comprised 144 women with a history of GDM between 2003 and 2010. Plasma insulin and glucose concentrations were obtained from a 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Total lactation duration (exclusive breastfeeding and breast and bottle-feeding) for all infants was self-reported in months.

RESULTS

Mean age was 36.5±5.0 years. Time between delivery and metabolic testing was 4.0±1.9 years. Women breastfed for an average of 13.9±16.8 months. Most women (80.6%) reported a history of lactation. Women who lactated had higher homeostasis model assessment for insulin sensitivity (HOMA-IS) and Matsuda indices and lower fasting and 2-h post-OGTT insulin concentrations as well as area under the curve (AUC) for insulin (P≤0.01 for all). Compared with women who lactated for <10 months, women who lactated for ≥10 months had improved insulin sensitivity-secretion index, higher HOMA-IS and Matsuda indices, lower fasting and 2-h post-OGTT insulin concentrations as well as AUC for insulin, and lower incidence of impaired glucose intolerance (P≤0.05 for all). In multiple linear regression analyses, lactation duration emerged as an independent predictor of fasting insulin concentrations (β=-0.02) and insulin sensitivity indices (β=0.02) (P≤0.05 for all).

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that longer duration of lactation is associated with improved insulin and glucose response among women with prior GDM.

Endothelial function in women with and without a history of glucose intolerance in pregnancy

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and milder gestational impaired glucose tolerance (GIGT) identify women who are at risk of developing cardiovascular disease. Endothelial dysfunction, as indicated by impaired flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) on brachial artery ultrasound, is an early marker of vascular disease. Thus, we sought to evaluate endothelial function in women with and without recent glucose intolerance in pregnancy.

METHODS

One-hundred and seventeen women underwent oral glucose tolerance testing (OGTT) in pregnancy, enabling stratification into those with normal gestational glucose tolerance (n = 59) and those with GDM or GIGT (n = 58). 6 years postpartum, they underwent a repeat of OGTT and brachial artery FMD studies, enabling assessment of FMD and 4 secondary vascular measures: FMD after 60 seconds (FMD60), baseline arterial diameter, peak shear rate, and reactive hyperemia.

RESULTS

There were no differences between the normal gestational glucose tolerance and GDM/GIGT groups in FMD (mean 8.5 versus 9.3%, P = 0.61), FMD60 (4.1 versus 5.1%, P = 0.33), baseline diameter (3.4 versus 3.4 mm, P = 0.66), peak shear rate (262.6 versus 274.8 s(-1), P = 0.32), and reactive hyperemia (576.6 versus 496.7%, P = 0.07). After covariate adjustment, there were still no differences between the groups.

CONCLUSION

Despite their long-term cardiovascular risk, women with glucose intolerance in pregnancy do not display endothelial dysfunction 6 years postpartum.

Long-term protective effect of lactation on the development of type 2 diabetes in women with recent gestational diabetes mellitus

Women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) have a high risk of developing postpartum type 2 diabetes. Strategies to prevent postpartum type 2 diabetes are important to reduce the epidemic of diabetes and its societal impact. Breastfeeding was reported to improve early postpartum glucose tolerance and reduce the subsequent risk of type 2 diabetes. To investigate whether breastfeeding influences short- and long-term postpartum diabetes outcomes, women with GDM (n = 304) participating in the prospective German GDM study were followed from delivery for up to 19 years postpartum for diabetes development. All participants were recruited between 1989 and 1999. Postpartum diabetes developed in 147 women and was dependent on the treatment received during pregnancy (insulin vs. diet), BMI, and presence/absence of islet autoantibodies. Among islet autoantibody-negative women, breastfeeding was associated with median time to diabetes of 12.3 years compared with 2.3 years in women who did not breastfeed. The lowest postpartum diabetes risk was observed in women who breastfed for >3 months. On the basis of these results, we recommend that breastfeeding should be encouraged among these women because it offers a safe and feasible low-cost intervention to reduce the risk of subsequent diabetes in this high-risk population.

Breastfeeding in women with type 1 diabetes: exploration of predictive factors

OBJECTIVE

To identify predictive factors for initiation and maintenance of breastfeeding with a focus on mothers with type 1 diabetes.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

This is a prospective observation survey, using a case-control design, comparing the outcomes of 108 mothers with type 1 diabetes with 104 mothers without diabetes that were matched for parity and gestational age. Mother and infant outcomes were collected from medical records and through telephone interviews 2 and 6 months after delivery. Predictive factors were calculated by logistic regression analyses.

RESULTS

Mothers with diabetes were less likely to partly or exclusively breastfeed their children at 2 months (OR 0.42 [95% CI 0.18-0.96], P = 0.041) and 6 months (0.50 [0.27-0.90], P = 0.022) than mothers without diabetes. On multivariable analysis, type 1 diabetes did not remain an independent predictive factor. Instead, higher education level and breastfeeding at discharge from hospital were predictive factors for breastfeeding at 2 months postpartum. These variables as well as delivery >37 weeks and early breastfeeding predicted breastfeeding 6 months postpartum.

CONCLUSIONS

Factors associated with maternal diabetes, such as problems with establishing breastfeeding in the early postpartum period, affects the likelihood of long-term breastfeeding.