Three-dimensional diamagnetic particle deflection in ferrofluid microchannel flows

Power-free plasma separation based on negative magnetophoresis for rapid biochemical analysis

We present a versatile platform for label-free magnetic separation of plasma, tailored to accommodate diverse environments. This innovative device utilizes an advanced long-short alternating double Halbach magnetic array, specifically engineered for optimal magnetic separation. The array's adaptability allows for seamless integration with separation channels of varying sizes, enabling static separation of whole blood. The platform has a highly flexible processing throughput, spanning from 100 μL to 3 mL per separation cycle without sacrificing separation efficiency. A key aspect of this device is its power-free operation throughout the separation process, obviating the complexity of conventional separation devices. Its effectiveness is demonstrated by the extraction of 40 μL of plasma from 100 μL of rat whole blood within 8 min. The separated plasma proved effective for subsequent analysis of antibody concentration and size in the separated plasma for pharmacokinetic investigations, yielding results on par with those obtained via centrifugation. Furthermore, the device's high-throughput capability was validated using human whole blood, achieving 3 mL of plasma separation in just 1 min. In a follow-up study on COVID-19 IgG antibody detection, the results matched those from centrifugation. The device demonstrates a separation efficiency of 99.9% for cells larger than 1 μm in both rat and human blood samples, with a plasma recovery rate of 72.7%. In summary, our magnetic separation device facilitates rapid plasma extraction from whole blood, with a capacity of up to 3 mL per minute in human blood, without compromising subsequent plasma-based analyses, thereby highlighting its broad applicability across diverse settings.

Multi-particle interaction in AC electric field driven by dielectrophoresis force

When the dielectrophoresis technology is used to manipulate micron-sized particles, the interaction between particles should not be ignored because of the particle-particle interaction. Especially, when multiple particles (number of particles is above 2) are simultaneously manipulated, the interaction between neighboring particles will affect the results of the manipulation. This research investigates the interaction of particles caused dielectrophoresis effect by the Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) method based on the hypothesis of the thin layer of the electric double layer at the microscale. The mathematics model can be solved simultaneously by the finite element method for the AC electric field, the flow field around the suspended particles and the particle mechanics at the micrometer scale. In this study, the particle conductivity and the direction of the electric field are investigated, we find that particle conductivity and electric field direction pose an impact on particle movement, and the research reveal the law of microparticle dielectrophoresis movement, which could offer theoretical and technology support to profoundly understand the precise manipulation of particles in microfluidic chips by the dielectrophoresis effect.

Recent Advances in Continuous-Flow Particle Manipulations Using Magnetic Fluids

Magnetic field-induced particle manipulation is simple and economic as compared to other techniques (e.g., electric, acoustic, and optical) for lab-on-a-chip applications. However, traditional magnetic controls require the particles to be manipulated being magnetizable, which renders it necessary to magnetically label particles that are almost exclusively diamagnetic in nature. In the past decade, magnetic fluids including paramagnetic solutions and ferrofluids have been increasingly used in microfluidic devices to implement label-free manipulations of various types of particles (both synthetic and biological). We review herein the recent advances in this field with focus upon the continuous-flow particle manipulations. Specifically, we review the reported studies on the negative magnetophoresis-induced deflection, focusing, enrichment, separation, and medium exchange of diamagnetic particles in the continuous flow of magnetic fluids through microchannels.

Magnetic control of graphitic microparticles in aqueous solutions

Graphite is an inexpensive material with useful electrical, magnetic, thermal, and optical properties. It is also biocompatible and used universally as a substrate. Micrometer-sized graphitic particles in solution are therefore ideal candidates for novel lab-on-a-chip and remote manipulation applications in biomedicine, biophysics, chemistry, and condensed-matter physics. However, submerged graphite is not known to be amenable to magnetic manipulation, the optimal manipulation method for such applications. Here, we exploit the diamagnetism of graphite and demonstrate contactless magnetic positioning control of graphitic microflakes in diamagnetic aqueous solutions. We develop a theoretical model for magnetic manipulation of graphite microflakes and demonstrate experimentally magnetic transport of such particles over distances [Formula: see text] with peak velocities [Formula: see text] in inhomogeneous magnetic fields. We achieve fully biocompatible transport for lipid-coated graphite in NaCl aqueous solution, paving the way for previously undiscovered biomedical applications. Our results prove that micrometer-sized graphite can be magnetically manipulated in liquid media.

Simultaneous Separation and Washing of Nonmagnetic Particles in an Inertial Ferrofluid/Water Coflow

Magnetic fluids (e.g., paramagnetic solutions and ferrofluids) have been increasingly used for label-free separation of nonmagnetic particles in microfluidic devices. Their biocompatibility, however, becomes a concern in high-throughput or large-volume applications. One way to potentially resolve this issue is resuspending the particles that are separated in a magnetic fluid immediately into a biocompatible buffer. We demonstrate herein the proof-of-principle of the first integration of negative magnetophoresis and inertial focusing for a simultaneous separation and washing of nonmagnetic particles in coflowing ferrofluid and water streams. The two operations take place in parallel in a simple T-shaped rectangular microchannel with a nearby permanent magnet. We find that the larger and smaller particles' exiting positions (and hence their separation distance) in the sheath water and ferrofluid suspension, respectively, vary with the total flow rate or the flow rate ratio between the two streams.

A novel viscoelastic-based ferrofluid for continuous sheathless microfluidic separation of nonmagnetic microparticles

Separation of microparticles has found broad applications in biomedicine, industry and clinical diagnosis. In a conventional aqueous ferrofluid, separation of microparticles usually employs a sheath flow or two offset magnets to confine particle streams for downstream particle sorting. This complicates the fluid control, device fabrication, and dilutes the particle sample. In this work, we propose and develop a novel viscoelastic ferrofluid by replacing the Newtonian base medium of the conventional ferrofluid with non-Newtonian poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) aqueous solution. The properties of both viscoelastic 3D focusing and negative magnetophoresis of the viscoelastic ferrofluid were verified and investigated. By employing the both properties in a serial manner, continuous and sheathless separation of nonmagnetic particles based on particle size has been demonstrated. This novel viscoelastic ferrofluid is expected to bring more flexibility and versatility to the design and functionality in microfluidic devices.

Advances in the microrheology of complex fluids

New developments in the microrheology of complex fluids are considered. Firstly the requirements for a simple modern particle tracking microrheology experiment are introduced, the error analysis methods associated with it and the mathematical techniques required to calculate the linear viscoelasticity. Progress in microrheology instrumentation is then described with respect to detectors, light sources, colloidal probes, magnetic tweezers, optical tweezers, diffusing wave spectroscopy, optical coherence tomography, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, elastic- and quasi-elastic scattering techniques, 3D tracking, single molecule methods, modern microscopy methods and microfluidics. New theoretical techniques are also reviewed such as Bayesian analysis, oversampling, inversion techniques, alternative statistical tools for tracks (angular correlations, first passage probabilities, the kurtosis, motor protein step segmentation etc), issues in micro/macro rheological agreement and two particle methodologies. Applications where microrheology has begun to make some impact are also considered including semi-flexible polymers, gels, microorganism biofilms, intracellular methods, high frequency viscoelasticity, comb polymers, active motile fluids, blood clots, colloids, granular materials, polymers, liquid crystals and foods. Two large emergent areas of microrheology, non-linear microrheology and surface microrheology are also discussed.

Label-Free Microfluidic Manipulation of Particles and Cells in Magnetic Liquids

Manipulating particles and cells in magnetic liquids through so-called "negative magnetophoresis" is a new research field. It has resulted in label-free and low-cost manipulation techniques in microfluidic systems and many exciting applications. It is the goal of this review to introduce the fundamental principles of negative magnetophoresis and its recent applications in microfluidic manipulation of particles and cells. We will first discuss the theoretical background of three commonly used specificities of manipulation in magnetic liquids, which include the size, density and magnetic property of particles and cells. We will then review and compare the media used in negative magnetophoresis, which include paramagnetic salt solutions and ferrofluids. Afterwards, we will focus on reviewing existing microfluidic applications of negative magnetophoresis, including separation, focusing, trapping and concentration of particles and cells, determination of cell density, measurement of particles' magnetic susceptibility, and others. We will also examine the need for developing biocompatible magnetic liquids for live cell manipulation and analysis, and its recent progress. Finally, we will conclude this review with a brief outlook for this exciting research field.

Label-Free and Continuous-Flow Ferrohydrodynamic Separation of HeLa Cells and Blood Cells in Biocompatible Ferrofluids

In this study, a label-free, low-cost, and fast ferrohydrodynamic cell separation scheme is demonstrated using HeLa cells (an epithelial cell line) and red blood cells. The separation is based on cell size difference, and conducted in a custom-made biocompatible ferrofluid that retains the viability of cells during and after the assay for downstream analysis. The scheme offers moderate-throughput (≈106 cells h-1 for a single channel device) and extremely high recovery rate (>99%) without the use of any label. It is envisioned that this separation scheme will have clinical applications in settings where rapid cell enrichment and removal of contaminating blood will improve efficiency of screening and diagnosis such as cervical cancer screening based on mixed populations in exfoliated samples.

Magnetic Trapping of Bacteria at Low Magnetic Fields

A suspension of non-magnetic entities in a ferrofluid is referred to as an inverse ferrofluid. Current research to trap non-magnetic entities in an inverse ferrofluid focuses on using large permanent magnets to generate high magnetic field gradients, which seriously limits Lab-on-a-Chip applications. On the other hand, in this work, trapping of non-magnetic entities, e.g., bacteria in a uniform external magnetic field was studied with a novel chip design. An inverse ferrofluid flows in a channel and a non-magnetic island is placed in the middle of this channel. The magnetic field was distorted by this island due to the magnetic susceptibility difference between this island and the surrounding ferrofluid, resulting in magnetic forces applied on the non-magnetic entities. Both the ferromagnetic particles and the non-magnetic entities, e.g., bacteria were attracted towards the island, and subsequently accumulate in different regions. The alignment of the ferrimagnetic particles and optical transparency of the ferrofluid was greatly enhanced by the bacteria at low applied magnetic fields. This work is applicable to lab-on-a-chip based detection and trapping of non-magnetic entities bacteria and cells.

Multiphase ferrofluid flows for micro-particle focusing and separation

Ferrofluids have demonstrated great potential for a variety of manipulations of diamagnetic (or non-magnetic) micro-particles/cells in microfluidics, including sorting, focusing, and enriching. By utilizing size dependent magnetophoresis velocity, most of the existing techniques employ single phase ferrofluids to push the particles towards the channel walls. In this work, we demonstrate a novel strategy for focusing and separating diamagnetic micro-particles by using the laminar fluid interface of two co-flowing fluids-a ferrofluid and a non-magnetic fluid. Next to the microfluidic channel, microscale magnets are fabricated to generate strong localized magnetic field gradients and forces. Due to the magnetic force, diamagnetic particles suspended in the ferrofluid phase migrate across the ferrofluid stream at the size-dependent velocities. Because of the low Reynolds number and high Péclet number associated with the flow, the fluid interface is sharp and stable. When the micro-particles migrate to the interface, they are accumulated near the interface, resulting in effective focusing and separation of particles. We investigated several factors that affect the focusing and separation efficiency, including susceptibility of the ferrofluid, distance between the microfluidic channel and microscale magnet, and width of the microfluidic channel. This concept can be extended to multiple fluid interfaces. For example, a complete separation of micro-particles was demonstrated by using a three-stream multiphase flow configuration.

Optimization of magnetophoretic-guided drug delivery to the olfactory region in a human nose model

Magnetophoretic-guided delivery has been shown to be able to improve the olfactory doses. However, due to the complex nasal structure and quick decay of magnetic intensity, precise control of particle motion in the human nose remains a challenge. In this study, an optimization model was developed for magnetophoretic olfactory delivery systems. The performance of the model was evaluated using a baseline device design in an MRI-based human nose geometry. Three key components of the delivery system were examined, which included the particle release position, the front magnet to minimize nasal valve depositions, and the top magnet to attract particles into the olfactory region. Results show that the magnetophoretic olfactory delivery device can be significantly improved by optimizing the product and operational parameters. The olfactory delivery efficiency was increased by 1.5-fold compared to the baseline design. The top magnet height and strength were shown to be the most influential factor in olfactory delivery, followed by the drug release position and the front magnet strength. The optimization framework developed in this study can be easily adapted for the optimization of intranasal drug delivery to other regions such as paranasal sinuses.

Simultaneous diamagnetic and magnetic particle trapping in ferrofluid microflows via a single permanent magnet

Trapping and preconcentrating particles and cells for enhanced detection and analysis are often essential in many chemical and biological applications. Existing methods for diamagnetic particle trapping require the placement of one or multiple pairs of magnets nearby the particle flowing channel. The strong attractive or repulsive force between the magnets makes it difficult to align and place them close enough to the channel, which not only complicates the device fabrication but also restricts the particle trapping performance. This work demonstrates for the first time the use of a single permanent magnet to simultaneously trap diamagnetic and magnetic particles in ferrofluid flows through a T-shaped microchannel. The two types of particles are preconcentrated to distinct locations of the T-junction due to the induced negative and positive magnetophoretic motions, respectively. Moreover, they can be sequentially released from their respective trapping spots by simply increasing the ferrofluid flow rate. In addition, a three-dimensional numerical model is developed, which predicts with a reasonable agreement the trajectories of diamagnetic and magnetic particles as well as the buildup of ferrofluid nanoparticles.

Improving intranasal delivery of neurological nanomedicine to the olfactory region using magnetophoretic guidance of microsphere carriers

BACKGROUND

Although direct nose-to-brain drug delivery has multiple advantages, its application is limited by the extremely low delivery efficiency (<1%) to the olfactory region where drugs can enter the brain. It is crucial to developing new methods that can deliver drug particles more effectively to the olfactory region.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We introduced a delivery method that used magnetophoresis to improve olfactory delivery efficiency. The performance of the proposed method was assessed numerically in an image-based human nose model. Influences of the magnet layout, magnet strength, drug-release position, and particle diameter on the olfactory dosage were examined.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results showed that particle diameter was a critical factor in controlling the motion of nasally inhaled ferromagnetic drug particles. The optimal particle size was found to be approximately 15 μm for effective magnetophoretic guidance while avoiding loss of particles to the walls in the anterior nose. Olfactory delivery efficiency was shown to be sensitive to the position and strength of magnets and the release position of drug particles. The results of this study showed that clinically significant olfactory doses (up to 45%) were feasible using the optimal combination of magnet layout, selective drug release, and microsphere-carrier diameter. A 64-fold-higher delivery of dosage was predicted in the magnetized nose compared to the control case, which did not have a magnetic field. However, the sensitivity of olfactory dosage to operating conditions and the unstable nature of magnetophoresis make controlled guidance of nasally inhaled aerosols still highly challenging.

Diamagnetic repulsion of particles for multilaminar flow assays

A continuous multilaminar flow reaction was performed on functionalised polymer particlesviadiamagnetic repulsion forces, using a simple, inexpensive setup.

Viscoelastic effects on electrokinetic particle focusing in a constricted microchannel

Focusing suspended particles in a fluid into a single file is often necessary prior to continuous-flow detection, analysis, and separation. Electrokinetic particle focusing has been demonstrated in constricted microchannels by the use of the constriction-induced dielectrophoresis. However, previous studies on this subject have been limited to Newtonian fluids only. We report in this paper an experimental investigation of the viscoelastic effects on electrokinetic particle focusing in non-Newtonian polyethylene oxide solutions through a constricted microchannel. The width of the focused particle stream is found NOT to decrease with the increase in DC electric field, which is different from that in Newtonian fluids. Moreover, particle aggregations are observed at relatively high electric fields to first form inside the constriction. They can then either move forward and exit the constriction in an explosive mode or roll back to the constriction entrance for further accumulations. These unexpected phenomena are distinct from the findings in our earlier paper [Lu et al., Biomicrofluidics 8, 021802 (2014)], where particles are observed to oscillate inside the constriction and not to pass through until a chain of sufficient length is formed. They are speculated to be a consequence of the fluid viscoelasticity effects.

Magnetophoresis of diamagnetic microparticles in a weak magnetic field

Magnetic manipulation is a promising technique for lab-on-a-chip platforms. The magnetic approach can avoid problems associated with heat, surface charge, ionic concentration and pH level. The present paper investigates the migration of diamagnetic particles in a ferrofluid core stream that is sandwiched between two diamagnetic streams in a uniform magnetic field. The three-layer flow is expanded in a circular chamber for characterisation based on imaging of magnetic nanoparticles and fluorescent microparticles. A custom-made electromagnet generates a uniform magnetic field across the chamber. In a relatively weak uniform magnetic field, the diamagnetic particles in the ferrofluid move and spread across the chamber. Due to the magnetization gradient formed by the ferrofluid, diamagnetic particles undergo negative magnetophoresis and move towards the diamagnetic streams. The effects of magnetic field strength and the concentration of diamagnetic particles are studied in detail.

Analytical model of batch magnetophoretic separation

Magnetophoresis (the motion of magnetic particles driven by the nonuniform magnetic field), that for a long time has been used for extracting magnetically susceptible objects in diverse industries, now attracts interest to develop more sophisticated microfluidic and batch techniques for separation and manipulation of biological particles, and magnetically assisted absorption and catalysis in organic chemistry, biochemistry, and petrochemistry. A deficiency of magnetic separation science is the lack of simple analytical models imitating real processes of magnetic separation. We have studied the motion of superparamagnetic (generally, soft magnetic) particles in liquid in the three-dimensional field of the diametrically polarized permanent cylindrical magnet; this geometry is basically representative of the batch separation mode. In the limit of the infinite-length magnet, we found the particle magnetophoresis proceeds independently of the magnet polarization direction, following the simple analytical relation incorporating all the relevant physical and geometrical parameters of the particle-magnet system. In experiments with a finite-length magnet we have shown applicability of the developed theory as to analyze the performance of the real batch separation systems in the noncooperative mode, and finally, we have presented an example of such analysis for the case of immunomagnetic cell separation and developed a criterion of the model limitation imposed by the magnetic aggregation of particles.

On-chip microfluidic biosensor using superparamagnetic microparticles

In this paper, an integrated solution towards an on-chip microfluidic biosensor using the magnetically induced motion of functionalized superparamagnetic microparticles (SMPs) is presented. The concept of the proposed method is that the induced velocity on SMPs in suspension, while imposed to a magnetic field gradient, is inversely proportional to their volume. Specifically, a velocity variation of suspended functionalized SMPs inside a detection microchannel with respect to a reference velocity, specified in a parallel reference microchannel, indicates an increase in their non-magnetic volume. This volumetric increase of the SMPs is caused by the binding of organic compounds (e.g., biomolecules) to their functionalized surface. The new compounds with the increased non-magnetic volume are called loaded SMPs (LSMPs). The magnetic force required for the manipulation of the SMPs and LSMPs is produced by current currying conducting microstructures, driven by a programmable microcontroller. Experiments were carried out as a proof of concept. A promising decrease in the velocity of the LSMPs in comparison to that of the SMPs was measured. Thus, it is the velocity variation which determines the presence of the organic compounds in the sample fluid.

Continuous sheath-free magnetic separation of particles in a U-shaped microchannel

Particle separation is important to many chemical and biomedical applications. Magnetic field-induced particle separation is simple, cheap, and free of fluid heating issues that accompany electric, acoustic, and optical methods. We develop herein a novel microfluidic approach to continuous sheath-free magnetic separation of particles. This approach exploits the negative or positive magnetophoretic deflection to focus and separate particles in the two branches of a U-shaped microchannel, respectively. It is applicable to both magnetic and diamagnetic particle separations, and is demonstrated through the sorting of 5 μm and 15 μm polystyrene particles suspended in a dilute ferrofluid.

Continuous-flow Ferrohydrodynamic Sorting of Particles and Cells in Microfluidic Devices

A new sorting scheme based on ferrofluid hydrodynamics (ferrohydrodynamics) was used to separate mixtures of particles and live cells simultaneously. Two species of cells, including Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as well as fluorescent polystyrene microparticles were studied for their sorting throughput and efficiency. Ferrofluids are stable magnetic nanoparticles suspensions. Under external magnetic fields, magnetic buoyancy forces exerted on particles and cells lead to size-dependent deflections from their laminar flow paths and result in spatial separation. We report the design, modeling, fabrication and characterization of the sorting device. This scheme is simple, low-cost and label-free compared to other existing techniques.