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van de Laar T, Hooiveld E, Higler R, van der Scheer P, Sprakel J. Gel Trapping Enables Optical Spectroscopy of Single Solvated Conjugated Polymers in Equilibrium. ACS NANO 2019; 13:13185-13195. [PMID: 31647632 PMCID: PMC6887849 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.9b06164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Single-molecule studies have provided a wealth of insight into the photophysics of conjugated polymers in the solid and desolvated state. Desolvating conjugated chains, e.g., by their embedding in inert solid matrices, invariably leads to chain collapse and the formation of intermolecular aggregates, which have a pronounced effect on their properties. By contrast, the luminescent properties of individual semiconducting polymers in their solvated and thermodynamic state remain largely unexplored. In this paper, we demonstrate a versatile gel trapping technique that enables the chemistry-free immobilization and interrogation of individual conjugated macromolecules, which retain a fully equilibrated conformation by contrast to conventional solid-state immobilization methods. We show how the technique can be used to record full luminescence spectra of single chains, to evaluate their time-resolved fluorescence, and to probe their photodynamics. Finally, we explore how the photophysics of different conjugated polymers is strongly affected by desolvation and chain collapse.
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Zhang M, Zhu L, Guo P, Wang X, Tong J, Zhang X, Jia Y, Yang R, Xia Y, Wang C. Effect of Flank Rotation on the Photovoltaic Properties of Dithieno[2,3- d:2',3'- d']benzo[1,2- b:4,5- b']dithiophene-Based Narrow Band Gap Copolymers. Polymers (Basel) 2019; 11:E239. [PMID: 30960223 PMCID: PMC6419082 DOI: 10.3390/polym11020239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Side chain engineering has been an effective approach to modulate the solution processability, optoelectronic properties and miscibility of conjugated polymers (CPs) for organic/polymeric photovoltaic cells (PVCs). As compared with the most commonly used method of introducing alkyl chains, the employment of alkyl-substituted aryl flanks would provide two-dimensional (2-D) CPs having solution processability alongside additional merits like deepened highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) energy levels, increased absorption coefficient and charger transporting, etc. In this paper, the triple C≡C bond was used as conjugated linker to decrease the steric hindrance between the flanks of 4,5-didecylthien-2-yl (T) and dithieno[2,3-d:2',3'-d']benzo[1,2-b:4,5-b']dithiophene (DTBDT) core. In addition, an alternating CP derived from 4,5-didecylthien-2-yl-ethynyl (TE) flanked DTBDT, and 4,9-bis(4-octylthien-2-yl) naphtho[1,2-c:5,6-c']bis[1,2,5]thiadiazole (DTNT), named as PDTBDT-TE-DTNT, was synthesized and characterized. As compared with the controlled PDTBDT-T-DTNT, which was derived from 4,5-didecylthien-2-yl flanked DTBDT and DTNT, the results for exciton dissociation probability, density functional theory (DFT), time-resolved photoluminescence (PL) measurements, etc., revealed that the lower steric hindrance between TE and DTBDT might lead to the easier rotation of the TE flanks, thus contributing to the decrease of the exciton lifetime and dissociation probability, finally suppressing the short-circuit current density (JSC), etc., of the photovoltaic devices from PDTBDT-TE-DTNT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingjing Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Technology and Intelligent Control of Ministry Education, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
| | - Liangjian Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Technology and Intelligent Control of Ministry Education, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
| | - Pengzhi Guo
- National Green Coating Technology and Equipment Engineering Technology Research Center, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
| | - Xunchang Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266101, China.
| | - Junfeng Tong
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Technology and Intelligent Control of Ministry Education, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
| | - Xiaofang Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Technology and Intelligent Control of Ministry Education, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
| | - Yongjian Jia
- National Green Coating Technology and Equipment Engineering Technology Research Center, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
| | - Renqiang Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266101, China.
| | - Yangjun Xia
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Technology and Intelligent Control of Ministry Education, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
| | - Chenglong Wang
- National Green Coating Technology and Equipment Engineering Technology Research Center, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
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Li S, Liu Z, Su C, Chen H, Fei X, Guo Z. Biological pH sensing based on the environmentally friendly Raman technique through a polyaniline probe. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 409:1387-1394. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-0063-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2016] [Revised: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Masi S, Colella S, Listorti A, Roiati V, Liscio A, Palermo V, Rizzo A, Gigli G. Growing perovskite into polymers for easy-processable optoelectronic devices. Sci Rep 2015; 5:7725. [PMID: 25579988 PMCID: PMC4289898 DOI: 10.1038/srep07725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Here we conceive an innovative nanocomposite to endow hybrid perovskites with the easy processability of polymers, providing a tool to control film quality and material crystallinity. We verify that the employed semiconducting polymer, poly[2-methoxy-5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylenevinylene] (MEH-PPV), controls the self-assembly of CH₃NH₃PbI₃ (MAPbI₃) crystalline domains and favors the deposition of a very smooth and homogenous layer in one straightforward step. This idea offers a new paradigm for the implementation of polymer/perovskite nanocomposites towards versatile optoelectronic devices combined with the feasibility of mass production. As a proof-of-concept we propose the application of such nanocomposite in polymer solar cell architecture, demonstrating a power conversion efficiency up to 3%, to date the highest reported for MEH-PPV. On-purpose designed polymers are expected to suit the nanocomposite properties for the integration in diverse optoelectronic devices via facile processing condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Masi
- Dipartimento di Matematica e Fisica “E. De Giorgi”, Universita' del Salento, Via per Arnesano, 73100 Lecce, Italy
- Center for Bio-Molecular Nanotechnology - Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Barsanti, 73010 Arnesano (Lecce), Italy
| | - Silvia Colella
- NNL – National Nanotechnology Laboratory, CNR Istituto Nanoscienze, Distretto Tecnologico, Via Arnesano 16, 73100 Lecce, Italy
| | - Andrea Listorti
- Center for Bio-Molecular Nanotechnology - Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Barsanti, 73010 Arnesano (Lecce), Italy
- NNL – National Nanotechnology Laboratory, CNR Istituto Nanoscienze, Distretto Tecnologico, Via Arnesano 16, 73100 Lecce, Italy
| | - Vittoria Roiati
- Center for Bio-Molecular Nanotechnology - Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Barsanti, 73010 Arnesano (Lecce), Italy
- Dept. of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, p.zza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milano, Italy
| | - Andrea Liscio
- Istituto per la Sintesi e la Fotoreattività CNR, via Gobetti 101, Bologna, 40120, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Palermo
- Istituto per la Sintesi e la Fotoreattività CNR, via Gobetti 101, Bologna, 40120, Italy
| | - Aurora Rizzo
- NNL – National Nanotechnology Laboratory, CNR Istituto Nanoscienze, Distretto Tecnologico, Via Arnesano 16, 73100 Lecce, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Gigli
- Dipartimento di Matematica e Fisica “E. De Giorgi”, Universita' del Salento, Via per Arnesano, 73100 Lecce, Italy
- Center for Bio-Molecular Nanotechnology - Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Barsanti, 73010 Arnesano (Lecce), Italy
- NNL – National Nanotechnology Laboratory, CNR Istituto Nanoscienze, Distretto Tecnologico, Via Arnesano 16, 73100 Lecce, Italy
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5
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High efficient light-emitting diodes using polystyrene as matrix. Sci Bull (Beijing) 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03325662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Lampert ZE, Reynolds CL, Papanikolas JM, Aboelfotoh MO. Controlling Morphology and Chain Aggregation in Semiconducting Conjugated Polymers: The Role of Solvent on Optical Gain in MEH-PPV. J Phys Chem B 2012; 116:12835-41. [DOI: 10.1021/jp304199u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zach E. Lampert
- Department of Materials
Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7919,
United States
| | - C. Lewis Reynolds
- Department of Materials
Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7919,
United States
| | - John M. Papanikolas
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - M. Osama Aboelfotoh
- Department of Materials
Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7919,
United States
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7
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Collini E, Todescato F, Ferrante C, Bozio R, Scholes GD. Photophysics and dynamics of surface plasmon polaritons-mediated energy transfer in the presence of an applied electric field. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 134:10061-70. [PMID: 22616877 DOI: 10.1021/ja3014314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The possibility to transfer energy between molecular excitons across a metal film up to 150 nm thick represents a very attractive solution to control and improve the performances of thin optoeletronic devices. This process involves the presence of coupled surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) at the two dielectric-metal interfaces, capable of mediating the interactions between donor and acceptor, located on opposite sides of the metal film. In this Article, the photophysics and the dynamics of an efficient SPP-mediated energy transfer between a suitable dye and a conjugated polymer is characterized by means of steady-state and time-resolved photoluminescence techniques. The process is studied in model multilayer structures (donor/metal/acceptor) as well as in electrically pumped heterostructures (donor/metal cathode/acceptor/anode), to verify the effects of applied electric fields on the efficiency and the dynamics of SPP-mediated energy transfer. A striking enhancement of the overall luminescence was recorded in a particular range of applied bias, suggesting the presence of cooperative effects between optical and electrical stimulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Collini
- Department of Chemical Sciences and INSTM, University of Padova, Via Marzolo 1, I-35131 Padova, Italy.
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Habuchi S, Fujita H, Michinobu T, Vacha M. Twist Angle Plays an Important Role in Photophysical Properties of a Donor–Acceptor-Type Conjugated Polymer: A Combined Ensemble and Single-Molecule Study. J Phys Chem B 2011; 115:14404-15. [DOI: 10.1021/jp209405k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Habuchi
- Department of Organic and Polymeric Materials, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Fujita
- Department of Organic and Polymeric Materials, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Michinobu
- Global Edge Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan
| | - Martin Vacha
- Department of Organic and Polymeric Materials, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan
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9
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Feist FA, Zickler MF, Basché T. Origin of the Red Sites and Energy Transfer Rates in Single MEH-PPV Chains at Low Temperature. Chemphyschem 2011; 12:1499-508. [DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201001010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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10
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Cury LA, Bourdakos KN, Dai D, Dias FB, Monkman AP. Long range energy transfer in conjugated polymer sequential bilayers. J Chem Phys 2011; 134:104903. [DOI: 10.1063/1.3560164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
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11
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Habuchi S, Onda S, Vacha M. Molecular weight dependence of emission intensity and emitting sites distribution within single conjugated polymer molecules. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2011; 13:1743-53. [DOI: 10.1039/c0cp01729a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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12
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Moscatelli A, Livingston K, So WY, Lee SJ, Scherf U, Wildeman J, Peteanu LA. Electric-field-induced fluorescence quenching in polyfluorene, ladder-type polymers, and MEH-PPV: evidence for field effects on internal conversion rates in the low concentration limit. J Phys Chem B 2010; 114:14430-9. [PMID: 20707332 DOI: 10.1021/jp101307p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Electric field-induced fluorescence quenching has been measured for a series of conjugated polymers with applications in organic light-emitting diodes. Electrofluorescence measurements on isolated chains in a glassy matrix at 77 K show that the quenching efficiency for poly[2-methoxy-5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-p-phenylenevinylene] (MEH-PPV) is an order of magnitude larger than that for either a ladder-type polymer (MeLPPP) or polyfluorene (PFH). This effect is explained in terms of the relatively high probability of field-enhanced internal conversion deactivation in MEH-PPV relative to either MeLPPP or PFH. These data, obtained under dilute sample conditions such that chain-chain interactions are minimal, are contrasted with the much higher quenching efficiencies observed in the corresponding polymer films, and several explanations for the differences are considered. In addition, the values of the change in dipole moment and change in polarizability on excitation (|Δμ| and tr(Δα), respectively) are reported, and trends in these values as a function of molecular structure and chain length are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Moscatelli
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA
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13
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Feist FA, Basché T. Fluorescence Excitation and Emission Spectroscopy on Single MEH-PPV Chains at Low Temperature. J Phys Chem B 2008; 112:9700-8. [DOI: 10.1021/jp802585m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Florian A. Feist
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, 55099 Mainz, Germany
| | - Thomas Basché
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, 55099 Mainz, Germany
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14
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Aharon E, Breuer S, Jaiser F, Köhler A, Frey GL. Effect of the Solvent on the Conformation of Isolated MEH‐PPV Chains Intercalated Into SnS2. Chemphyschem 2008; 9:1430-6. [DOI: 10.1002/cphc.200800109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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15
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Lin H, Tabaei SR, Thomsson D, Mirzov O, Larsson PO, Scheblykin IG. Fluorescence Blinking, Exciton Dynamics, and Energy Transfer Domains in Single Conjugated Polymer Chains. J Am Chem Soc 2008; 130:7042-51. [DOI: 10.1021/ja800153d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hongzhen Lin
- Chemical Physics and Pure and Applied Biochemistry, Lund University, Box 124, 22100 Lund, Sweden
| | - Seyed R. Tabaei
- Chemical Physics and Pure and Applied Biochemistry, Lund University, Box 124, 22100 Lund, Sweden
| | - Daniel Thomsson
- Chemical Physics and Pure and Applied Biochemistry, Lund University, Box 124, 22100 Lund, Sweden
| | - Oleg Mirzov
- Chemical Physics and Pure and Applied Biochemistry, Lund University, Box 124, 22100 Lund, Sweden
| | - Per-Olof Larsson
- Chemical Physics and Pure and Applied Biochemistry, Lund University, Box 124, 22100 Lund, Sweden
| | - Ivan G. Scheblykin
- Chemical Physics and Pure and Applied Biochemistry, Lund University, Box 124, 22100 Lund, Sweden
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16
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Kanemoto K, Imanaka Y, Akai I, Sugisaki M, Hashimoto H, Karasawa T. Intrachain Photoluminescence Dynamics of MEH−PPV in the Solid State. J Phys Chem B 2007; 111:12389-94. [DOI: 10.1021/jp073492b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katsuichi Kanemoto
- Department of Physics, Graduate Scholl of Science, Osaka City University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Imanaka
- Department of Physics, Graduate Scholl of Science, Osaka City University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Ichiro Akai
- Department of Physics, Graduate Scholl of Science, Osaka City University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Mitsuru Sugisaki
- Department of Physics, Graduate Scholl of Science, Osaka City University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Hideki Hashimoto
- Department of Physics, Graduate Scholl of Science, Osaka City University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Karasawa
- Department of Physics, Graduate Scholl of Science, Osaka City University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
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17
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Gettinger CL, Heeger AJ, Drake JM, Pine DJ. The Effect of Intrinsic Rigidity on the Optical Properties of PPV Derivatives. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1080/10587259408039283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. L. Gettinger
- a University of California , Santa Barbara Santa Barbara , California , 93106
| | - A. J. Heeger
- a University of California , Santa Barbara Santa Barbara , California , 93106
| | - J. M. Drake
- b Exxon Research and Engineering Company , Route 22 East, Annandale , New Jersey , 08801
| | - D. J. Pine
- b Exxon Research and Engineering Company , Route 22 East, Annandale , New Jersey , 08801
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18
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Yu G, Pakbaz K, Zhang C, Heeger AJ. Photosensitivity of MEH-PPV Sandwich Devices and Its Implication to Polymer Electronic Structure. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1080/10587259408039289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G. Yu
- a Institute for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California , Santa Barbara , California , 93106-5090 , USA
| | - K. Pakbaz
- a Institute for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California , Santa Barbara , California , 93106-5090 , USA
| | - C. Zhang
- a Institute for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California , Santa Barbara , California , 93106-5090 , USA
| | - A. J. Heeger
- a Institute for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California , Santa Barbara , California , 93106-5090 , USA
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Grimes AF, Call SE, Vicente DA, English DS, Harbron EJ. Toward Efficient Photomodulation of Conjugated Polymer Emission: Optimizing Differential Energy Transfer in Azobenzene-Substituted PPV Derivatives. J Phys Chem B 2006; 110:19183-90. [PMID: 17004767 DOI: 10.1021/jp0613236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We present fluorescence studies of quenching behavior in photoaddressable azobenzene-substituted derivatives of the fluorescent conjugated polymer poly(p-phenylenevinylene) (PPV). The azobenzene side chains partially quench the PPV fluorescence, and we have shown previously that the quenching efficiency is greater when the azobenzene side chains are cis than when they are trans. This effect provides a photoaddressable means of modulating the fluorescence intensity of PPV derivatives. To optimize the efficiency of photoinduced intensity modulation, it is important to understand the molecular nature of quenching by both trans- and cis-azobenzene side chains. Here we investigate the photophysical origins of quenching by the two isomers using steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. We present results from the azobenzene-modified PPV derivative poly(2-methoxy-5-((10-(4-(phenylazo)phenoxy)decyl)oxy)-1,4-phenylenevinylene) (MPA-10-PPV) and two new related polymers, a copolymer lacking half of the azobenzene side chains and an analogue of MPA-10-PPV with a tert-butyl-substituted azobenzene. These studies reveal that steric interactions influence the extent of PPV emission quenching by trans-azobenzene but do not affect the efficient quenching by cis-azobenzene. The difference in dynamic quenching efficiencies between trans- and cis-azobenzene isomers is consistent with fluorescence resonance energy transfer. These results show that it is possible to control the efficiency of photoswitchable fluorescence modulation through specific structural variations designed to encourage or block quenching by trans-azobenzene. This is a promising approach to providing useful general guidelines for designing photomodulated PPV derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy F Grimes
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, 20742, USA
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20
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Chasteen SV, Carter SA, Rumbles G. The effect of broken conjugation on the excited state: Ether linkage in the cyano-substituted poly(p-phenylene vinylene) conjugated polymer poly(2,5,2′,5′-tetrahexyloxy-8,7′-dicyano-di-p-phenylene vinylene). J Chem Phys 2006; 124:214704. [PMID: 16774428 DOI: 10.1063/1.2196036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigate the effect of broken conjugation on the excited state dynamics of excimers in cyano-substituted phenylene-vinylene polymers. We compare previous studies on the well-characterized poly(2,5,2',5'-tetrahexyloxy-8,7'-dicyano-di-p-phenylene vinylene) (CN-PPV) with poly[oxa-1,4-phenylene-1,2-(1-cyano)-ethenylene-2,5-dioctyloxy-1,4-phenylene-1,2-(2-cyano)-ethenylene-1,4-phenylene] (CN-ether-PPV), in which the conjugation is disrupted by the insertion of an oxygen atom within the polymer backbone. Despite the broken conjugation, the spectroscopic behavior of the two materials is similar, indicating that the cyano group dominates the photophysics in these materials. The emission in CN-ether-PPV is due to a single-chain exciton in solution and due to an interchain excimer in thin film, as previously reported for CN-PPV; however, the excimer absorption and emission in thin film are blueshifted by approximately 0.2 eV relative to CN-PPV, implying that the excimer in CN-ether-PPV is less stable. Furthermore, substitution of an ether group along the chain results in decay times in both solution and film that are twice as long than in CN-PPV due to the broken conjugation which restricts the exciton within a conjugation segment and reduces its access to internal quenching sites. These properties result in a decay time of 14 ns for CN-ether-PPV film, one of the longest decay times observed in a conjugated polymer film. The long lifetime indicates a large exciton diffusion length, making these species particularly vulnerable to quenching by other materials. This work has implications for the design of conjugated polymers for efficient optoelectronic devices, such as photovoltaics.
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Affiliation(s)
- S V Chasteen
- Physics Department, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California 95064, USA.
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Lee YJ, Kim DY, Grey JK, Barbara PF. Variable Temperature Single-Molecule Dynamics of MEH-PPV. Chemphyschem 2005; 6:2404-9. [PMID: 16224763 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.200500300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we continue our investigation of the single-molecule spectroscopy of the conjugated polymer poly[2-methoxy,5-(2'-ethylhexyloxy)-p-phenylene-vinylene] (MEH-PPV) at cryogenic temperatures. First, the low temperature microsecond dynamics of single MEH-PPV conjugated polymer molecules are compared to the dynamics at room temperature revealing no detectible temperature dependence. The lack of temperature dependence is consistent with the previous assignment of the dynamics to a mechanism that involves intersystem crossing and triplet-triplet annihilation. Second, the fluorescence spectra of single MEH-PPV molecules at low temperature are studied as a function of excitation wavelength (i.e. 488, 543, and 568 nm). These results exhibit nearly identical fluorescence spectra for different excitation wavelengths. This strongly suggests that electronic energy transfer occurs efficiently to a small number of low-energy sites in the multichromophoric MEH-PPV chains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Jong Lee
- Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
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22
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Zucolotto V, Faceto AD, Santos FR, Mendonça CR, Guimarães FEG, Oliveira ON. Molecular-Level Control of the Photoluminescence from PPV Nanostructured Films. J Phys Chem B 2005; 109:7063-6. [PMID: 16851803 DOI: 10.1021/jp0443613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The fabrication of varied molecular architectures in layer-by-layer (LbL) films is exploited to control the photoluminescence (PL) of poly(p-phenylene vinylene) (PPV) in an unprecedented way. This was achieved by controlling the Förster energy transfer between PPV layers (donors) and layers of a commercial azodye, Brilliant Yellow (BY) (acceptors). Energy transfer was controlled by inserting spacer layers of inert polymers between PPV and BY layers and by photoaligning the BY molecules via trans-cis-trans isomerization. The PPV/BY LbL films displayed polarized PL whose intensity could be varied almost continuously by changing the time of photoalignment, which was carried out by impinging a linearly polarized laser light simultaneously to the PL experiments. For PPV/BY films with no spacer layers, PL was completely quenched, but its intensity increased with the number of spacing layers. Further increase in PL was obtained by photoaligning the BY molecules perpendicularly to the PPV molecules. This minimizes energy transfer, since Förster processes are directional, dipole-dependent resonant transfers. Energy transfer is also controlled by imparting a preferential orientation of the PPV chains on PPV/BY LbL films deposited onto flexible Teflon substrates that may be stretched.
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23
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Anni M, Della Sala F, Raganato MF, Fabiano E, Lattante S, Cingolani R, Gigli G, Barbarella G, Favaretto L, Görling A. Nonradiative Relaxation in Thiophene-S,S-dioxide Derivatives: The Role of the Environment. J Phys Chem B 2005; 109:6004-11. [PMID: 16851655 DOI: 10.1021/jp046465j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The intramolecular radiative and nonradiative relaxation processes of three thiophene-S,S-dioxide derivatives with different molecular rigidity are investigated in different solutions and in inert matrix. We show that the fluorescence quantum efficiency and the relaxation dynamics are strongly dependent on the environment viscosity, whereas they are almost independent of the environment polarity. We demonstrate that this strong dependence is due to an environment dependent nonradiative decay rate, whereas no relevant variations of the radiative decay rate are observed. We demonstrate that the dipole coupling with the solvent does not provide an efficient nonradiative decay channel and that the S(n) - S(1) vibrational relaxation is very efficient in all of the molecules and for all of the investigated environments. Moreover first-principles time-dependent density-functional theory calculations in the correct, i.e., excited-state, molecular conformation, suggest that significant contributions of intersystem crossing to the triplet manifold can be excluded. We then conclude that the main nonradiative process determining the fluorescence quantum efficiency of this class of molecules is S(1) - S(0) internal conversion (IC). An explanation for the IC rate dependence in terms of the environment viscosity, molecular rigidity, S(1) - S(0) energy-gap, and molecular volume is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Anni
- National Nanotechnology Laboratory (NNL) of INFM, Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell'Innovazione, Università degli Studi di Lecce, Via per Arnesano, 73100 Lecce, Italy
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Hou J, Fan B, Huo L, He C, Yang C, Li Y. Poly(alkylthio-p-phenylenevinylene): Synthesis and electroluminescent and photovoltaic properties. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1002/pola.21242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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25
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Karastatiris P, Mikroyannidis JA, Spiliopoulos IK, Kulkarni AP, Jenekhe SA. Synthesis, Photophysics, and Electroluminescence of New Quinoxaline-Containing Poly(p-phenylenevinylene)s. Macromolecules 2004. [DOI: 10.1021/ma048903q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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26
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Hollars CW, Lane SM, Huser T. Controlled non-classical photon emission from single conjugated polymer molecules. Chem Phys Lett 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0009-2614(03)00091-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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27
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Costanzo PJ, Stokes KK. Synthesis and Characterization of Poly(methyl acrylate) Grafted from Poly(thiophene) to Form Solid-State Fluorescent Materials. Macromolecules 2002. [DOI: 10.1021/ma011638d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Philip J. Costanzo
- Center of Macromolecule Engineering, Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213
| | - Kristoffer K. Stokes
- Center of Macromolecule Engineering, Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213
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28
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Koga T, Takase A, Yasuda S, Yamashita S, Gorohmaru H, Thiemann T, Mataka S, Takahashi K. Fluorescence spectroscopic characterization of 4,7-bis(2-thienyl)-1,2,5-oxadiazolo[3,4-c]pyridine; lead structure of new red-emitting EL material. Chem Phys Lett 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0009-2614(02)00147-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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29
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Anderson NA, Hao E, Ai X, Hastings G, Lian T. Ultrafast and long-lived photoinduced charge separation in MEH-PPV/nanoporous semiconductor thin film composites. Chem Phys Lett 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0009-2614(01)01065-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Yu J, Hu D, Barbara PF. Unmasking electronic energy transfer of conjugated polymers by suppression of O(2) quenching. Science 2000; 289:1327-30. [PMID: 10958774 DOI: 10.1126/science.289.5483.1327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 329] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The photochemistry of poly[2-methoxy, 5-(2'-ethyl-hexyloxy)-p-phenylene-vinylene] (MEH-PPV) has been found to be highly dependent on the presence of O(2), which increases singlet exciton quenching dramatically. Spectroscopy on isolated single molecules of MEH-PPV in polycarbonate films that exclude O(2) reveals two distinct polymer conformations with fluorescence maxima near 555 and 580 nanometers wavelength, respectively. Time-resolved single-molecule data demonstrate that the 580-nanometer conformation exhibits a "landscape" for intramolecular electronic energy relaxation with a "funnel" that contains a 580-nanometer singlet exciton trap at the bottom. The exciton traps can be converted to exciton quenchers by reaction with O(2). Conformationally induced, directed-energy transfer is arguably a critical dynamical process that is responsible for many of the distinctive photophysical properties of conjugated polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Yu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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33
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Affiliation(s)
- D T McQuade
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
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34
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35
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Fluorescence quantum yield and lifetime of `red' polydiacetylene chains isolated in their crystalline monomer matrix. Chem Phys Lett 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s0009-2614(99)01137-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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36
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Hu D, Yu J, Barbara PF. Single-Molecule Spectroscopy of the Conjugated Polymer MEH-PPV. J Am Chem Soc 1999. [DOI: 10.1021/ja990139d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dehong Hu
- Department of Chemistry University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Ji Yu
- Department of Chemistry University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Paul F. Barbara
- Department of Chemistry University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
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37
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Jeon CH, Makhaeva EE, Khokhlov AR. Complexes of polyelectrolyte hydrogels with organic dyes: Effect of charge density on the complex stability and intragel dye aggregation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1099-0488(19990615)37:12<1209::aid-polb2>3.0.co;2-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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38
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Cheng HL, Lin KF. Structural characterization and luminescent properties of poly(p-phenylene vinylene) and poly(ethylene glycol) blends. JOURNAL OF POLYMER RESEARCH 1999. [DOI: 10.1007/s10965-006-0079-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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39
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Nguyen TQ, Doan V, Schwartz BJ. Conjugated polymer aggregates in solution: Control of interchain interactions. J Chem Phys 1999. [DOI: 10.1063/1.478288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 641] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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40
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Jakubiak R, Collison CJ, Wan WC, Rothberg LJ, Hsieh BR. Aggregation Quenching of Luminescence in Electroluminescent Conjugated Polymers. J Phys Chem A 1999. [DOI: 10.1021/jp9839450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 337] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Jakubiak
- Department of Chemistry and NSF Center for Photoinduced Charge Transfer, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York 14627
| | - Christopher J. Collison
- Department of Chemistry and NSF Center for Photoinduced Charge Transfer, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York 14627
| | - Wai Chou Wan
- Department of Chemistry and NSF Center for Photoinduced Charge Transfer, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York 14627
| | - Lewis J. Rothberg
- Department of Chemistry and NSF Center for Photoinduced Charge Transfer, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York 14627
| | - Bing R. Hsieh
- Xerox Wilson Center for Technology, 800 Phillips Road, Webster, New York 14580
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41
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Strehmel B, Sarker AM, Malpert JH, Strehmel V, Seifert H, Neckers DC. Effect of Aromatic Ring Substitution on the Optical Properties, Emission Dynamics, and Solid-State Behavior of Fluorinated Oligophenylenevinylenes. J Am Chem Soc 1999. [DOI: 10.1021/ja983308n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Strehmel
- Contribution from the Center for Photochemical Sciences,1 Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio 43403, Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Geusaer Strasse, D-06217 Merseburg, Germany, and Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Humboldt University of Berlin, Bunsenstrasse 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Ananda M. Sarker
- Contribution from the Center for Photochemical Sciences,1 Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio 43403, Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Geusaer Strasse, D-06217 Merseburg, Germany, and Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Humboldt University of Berlin, Bunsenstrasse 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - John H. Malpert
- Contribution from the Center for Photochemical Sciences,1 Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio 43403, Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Geusaer Strasse, D-06217 Merseburg, Germany, and Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Humboldt University of Berlin, Bunsenstrasse 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Veronika Strehmel
- Contribution from the Center for Photochemical Sciences,1 Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio 43403, Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Geusaer Strasse, D-06217 Merseburg, Germany, and Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Humboldt University of Berlin, Bunsenstrasse 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Holger Seifert
- Contribution from the Center for Photochemical Sciences,1 Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio 43403, Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Geusaer Strasse, D-06217 Merseburg, Germany, and Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Humboldt University of Berlin, Bunsenstrasse 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Douglas C. Neckers
- Contribution from the Center for Photochemical Sciences,1 Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio 43403, Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Geusaer Strasse, D-06217 Merseburg, Germany, and Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Humboldt University of Berlin, Bunsenstrasse 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
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42
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Savenije TJ, Warman JM, Goossens A. Visible light sensitisation of titanium dioxide using a phenylene vinylene polymer. Chem Phys Lett 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0009-2614(98)00163-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 247] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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43
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Femtosecond dynamics of excitons in π-conjugated oligomers: the role of intrachain two-exciton states in the formation of interchain species. Chem Phys Lett 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0009-2614(97)00923-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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44
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DeAro J, Weston K, Buratto S, Lemmer U. Mesoscale optical properties of conjugated polymers probed by near-field scanning optical microscopy. Chem Phys Lett 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0009-2614(97)00882-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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45
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Smith RC, Fischer WM, Gin DL. Ordered Poly(p-phenylenevinylene) Matrix Nanocomposites via Lyotropic Liquid-Crystalline Monomers. J Am Chem Soc 1997. [DOI: 10.1021/ja963837w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan C. Smith
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Berkeley, California 94720-1460
| | - Walter M. Fischer
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Berkeley, California 94720-1460
| | - Douglas L. Gin
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Berkeley, California 94720-1460
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46
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Zhang JZ, Kreger MA, Hu QS, Vitharana D, Pu L, Brock PJ, Scott JC. Femtosecond studies of exciton dynamics in a novel main chain chiral conjugated poly(arylenevinylene). J Chem Phys 1997. [DOI: 10.1063/1.473423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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47
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48
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Greenham NC, Peng X, Alivisatos AP. Charge separation and transport in conjugated-polymer/semiconductor-nanocrystal composites studied by photoluminescence quenching and photoconductivity. PHYSICAL REVIEW. B, CONDENSED MATTER 1996; 54:17628-17637. [PMID: 9985889 DOI: 10.1103/physrevb.54.17628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 545] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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49
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Blatchford JW, Jessen SW, Lin L, Gustafson TL, Fu D, Wang H, Swager TM, MacDiarmid AG, Epstein AJ. Photoluminescence in pyridine-based polymers: Role of aggregates. PHYSICAL REVIEW. B, CONDENSED MATTER 1996; 54:9180-9189. [PMID: 9984647 DOI: 10.1103/physrevb.54.9180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
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50
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Heller CM, Campbell IH, Laurich BK, Smith DL, Bradley DD, Burn PL, Ferraris JP, Müllen K. Solid-state-concentration effects on the optical absorption and emission of poly(p-phenylene vinylene)-related materials. PHYSICAL REVIEW. B, CONDENSED MATTER 1996; 54:5516-5522. [PMID: 9986512 DOI: 10.1103/physrevb.54.5516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
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