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Guo T, Ge J, Jiao Y, Teng Y, Sun B, Huang W, Asgarimoghaddam H, Musselman KP, Fang Y, Zhou YN, Wu YA. Intelligent matter endows reconfigurable temperature and humidity sensations for in-sensor computing. MATERIALS HORIZONS 2023; 10:1030-1041. [PMID: 36692087 DOI: 10.1039/d2mh01491b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Data-centric tactics with in-sensor computing go beyond the conventional computing-centric tactic that is suffering from processing latency and excessive energy consumption. The multifunctional intelligent matter with dynamic smart responses to environmental variations paves the way to implement data-centric tactics with high computing efficiency. However, intelligent matter with humidity and temperature sensitivity has not been reported. In this work, a design is demonstrated based on a single memristive device to achieve reconfigurable temperature and humidity sensations. Opposite temperature sensations at the low resistance state (LRS) and high resistance state (HRS) were observed for low-level sensory data processing. Integrated devices mimicking intelligent electronic skin (e-skin) can work in three modes to adapt to different scenarios. Additionally, the device acts as a humidity-sensory artificial synapse that can implement high-level cognitive in-sensor computing. The intelligent matter with reconfigurable temperature and humidity sensations is promising for energy-efficient artificial intelligence (AI) systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Guo
- Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, and Waterloo Institute of Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.
| | - Jiawei Ge
- Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, and Waterloo Institute of Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.
- College of Materials Science and Technology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Materials and Technology for Energy Conversion, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, 210016, China
| | - Yixuan Jiao
- Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, and Waterloo Institute of Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.
| | - Youchao Teng
- Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, and Waterloo Institute of Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.
| | - Bai Sun
- Frontier Institute of Science and Technology (FIST), Xi'an Jiaotong University, No. 28, Xianning West Road, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710049, P. R. China
| | - Wen Huang
- New Energy Technology Engineering Laboratory of Jiangsu Province, School of Science, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China
- State Key Laboratory of Silicon Materials, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Hatameh Asgarimoghaddam
- Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, and Waterloo Institute of Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.
| | - Kevin P Musselman
- Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, and Waterloo Institute of Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.
| | - Yin Fang
- School of Chemical and Biomedical engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Y Norman Zhou
- Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, and Waterloo Institute of Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.
| | - Yimin A Wu
- Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, and Waterloo Institute of Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.
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2
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Daus A, Jaikissoon M, Khan AI, Kumar A, Grady RW, Saraswat KC, Pop E. Fast-Response Flexible Temperature Sensors with Atomically Thin Molybdenum Disulfide. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:6135-6140. [PMID: 35899996 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c01344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Real-time thermal sensing on flexible substrates could enable a plethora of new applications. However, achieving fast, sub-millisecond response times even in a single sensor is difficult, due to the thermal mass of the sensor and encapsulation. Here, we fabricate flexible monolayer molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) temperature sensors and arrays, which can detect temperature changes within a few microseconds, over 100× faster than flexible thin-film metal sensors. Thermal simulations indicate the sensors' response time is only limited by the MoS2 interfaces and encapsulation. The sensors also have high temperature coefficient of resistance, ∼1-2%/K and stable operation upon cycling and long-term measurement when they are encapsulated with alumina. These results, together with their biocompatibility, make these devices excellent candidates for biomedical sensor arrays and many other Internet of Things applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alwin Daus
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Marc Jaikissoon
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Asir Intisar Khan
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Aravindh Kumar
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Ryan W Grady
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Krishna C Saraswat
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Eric Pop
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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3
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Yang N, Xu J, Wang F, Yang F, Han D, Xu S. Thermal Probing Techniques for a Single Live Cell. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22145093. [PMID: 35890773 PMCID: PMC9317922 DOI: 10.3390/s22145093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Temperature is a significant factor in determining and characterizing cellular metabolism and other biochemical activities. In this study, we provide a brief overview of two important technologies used to monitor the local temperatures of individual living cells: fluorescence nano-thermometry and an array of micro-/nano-sized thin-film thermocouples. We explain some key technical issues that must be addressed and optimised for further practical applications, such as in cell biology, drug selection, and novel antitumor therapy. We also offer a method for combining them into a hybrid measuring system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nana Yang
- School of Microelectronics, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China; (N.Y.); (F.W.)
- School of Electronics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; (F.Y.); (D.H.); (S.X.)
| | - Jingjing Xu
- School of Electronics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; (F.Y.); (D.H.); (S.X.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Fan Wang
- School of Microelectronics, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China; (N.Y.); (F.W.)
| | - Fan Yang
- School of Electronics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; (F.Y.); (D.H.); (S.X.)
| | - Danhong Han
- School of Electronics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; (F.Y.); (D.H.); (S.X.)
- Beijing Research Institute of Mechanical Equipment, Beijing 100854, China
| | - Shengyong Xu
- School of Electronics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; (F.Y.); (D.H.); (S.X.)
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4
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Yang Z, Huang T, Cao P, Cui Y, Nie J, Chen T, Yang H, Wang F, Sun L. Carbonized Silk Nanofibers in Biodegradable, Flexible Temperature Sensors for Extracellular Environments. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:18110-18119. [PMID: 35435678 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c00384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Temperature is one of the key parameters for activity of cells. The trade-off between sensitivity and biocompatibility of cell temperature measurement is a challenge for temperature sensor development. Herein, a highly sensitive, biocompatible, and degradable temperature sensor was proposed to detect the living cell extracellular environments. Biocompatible silk materials were applied as sensing and packing layers, which endow the device with biocompatibility, biodegradability, and flexibility. The silk-based temperature sensor presented a sensitivity of 1.75%/°C and a working range of 35-63 °C with the capability to measure the extracellular environments. At the bending state, this sensor worked at promising response of cells at different temperatures. The applications of this developed silk material-based temperature sensor include biological electronic devices for cell manipulation, cell culture, and cellular metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhan Yang
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Robotics, School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215131, China
| | - Ting Huang
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Robotics, School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215131, China
| | - Peidong Cao
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Robotics, School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215131, China
| | - Yangchen Cui
- School of Public Health, Medical College of Soochow University, Soochow University, Suzhou 215131, China
| | - Jihua Nie
- School of Public Health, Medical College of Soochow University, Soochow University, Suzhou 215131, China
| | - Tao Chen
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Robotics, School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215131, China
| | - Hao Yang
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Robotics, School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215131, China
| | - Fengxia Wang
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Robotics, School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215131, China
| | - Lining Sun
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Robotics, School of Mechanical and Electric Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215131, China
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Jain P, Aida T, Motosuke M. Fluorescence Anisotropy as a Temperature-Sensing Molecular Probe Using Fluorescein. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:1109. [PMID: 34577751 PMCID: PMC8469510 DOI: 10.3390/mi12091109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescence anisotropy, a technique to study the folding state of proteins or affinity of ligands, is used in this present work as a temperature sensor, to measure the microfluidic temperature field, by adding fluorophore in the liquid. Fluorescein was used as a temperature-sensing probe, while glycerol-aq. ammonia solution was used as a working fluid. Fluorescence anisotropy of fluorescein was measured by varying various parameters. Apart from this, a comparison of fluorescence anisotropy and fluorescence intensity is also performed to demonstrate the validity of anisotropy to be applied in a microfluidic field with non-uniform liquid thickness. Viscosity dependence and temperature dependence on the anisotropy are also clarified; the results indicate an appropriate selection of relation between molecule size and viscosity is important to obtain a large temperature coefficient in anisotropy. Furthermore, a practical calibration procedure of the apparatus constant is proposed. In addition, the potential of temperature imaging is confirmed by the measurement of temperature distribution under focused laser heating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Puneet Jain
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, 6-3-1, Niijuku, Katsushika-ku, Tokyo 125-8585, Japan; (T.A.); (M.M.)
| | - Takuya Aida
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, 6-3-1, Niijuku, Katsushika-ku, Tokyo 125-8585, Japan; (T.A.); (M.M.)
| | - Masahiro Motosuke
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, 6-3-1, Niijuku, Katsushika-ku, Tokyo 125-8585, Japan; (T.A.); (M.M.)
- Water Frontier Research Center, Research Institute for Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science, 1-3, Kagurazaka, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 125-8585, Japan
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6
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Thermophoretic Micron-Scale Devices: Practical Approach and Review. ENTROPY 2020; 22:e22090950. [PMID: 33286719 PMCID: PMC7597233 DOI: 10.3390/e22090950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the development of micron-scale devices utilizing thermal gradients to manipulate molecules and colloids, and to measure their thermophoretic properties quantitatively. Various devices have been realized, such as on-chip implements, micro-thermogravitational columns and other micron-scale thermophoretic cells. The advantage of the miniaturized devices lies in the reduced sample volume. Often, a direct observation of particles using various microscopic techniques is possible. On the other hand, the small dimensions lead to some technical problems, such as a precise temperature measurement on small length scale with high spatial resolution. In this review, we will focus on the "state of the art" thermophoretic micron-scale devices, covering various aspects such as generating temperature gradients, temperature measurement, and the analysis of the current micron-scale devices. We want to give researchers an orientation for their development of thermophoretic micron-scale devices for biological, chemical, analytical, and medical applications.
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Weituschat LM, Dickmann W, Guimbao J, Ramos D, Kroker S, Postigo PA. Photonic and Thermal Modelling of Microrings in Silicon, Diamond and GaN for Temperature Sensing. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 10:E934. [PMID: 32408652 PMCID: PMC7279479 DOI: 10.3390/nano10050934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Staying in control of delicate processes in the evermore emerging field of micro, nano and quantum-technologies requires suitable devices to measure temperature and temperature flows with high thermal and spatial resolution. In this work, we design optical microring resonators (ORRs) made of different materials (silicon, diamond and gallium nitride) and simulate their temperature behavior using several finite-element methods. We predict the resonance frequencies of the designed devices and their temperature-induced shift (16.8 pm K-1 for diamond, 68.2 pm K-1 for silicon and 30.4 pm K-1 for GaN). In addition, the influence of two-photon-absorption (TPA) and the associated self-heating on the accuracy of the temperature measurement is analysed. The results show that owing to the absence of intrinsic TPA-processes self-heating at resonance is less critical in diamond and GaN than in silicon, with the threshold intensity I th = α / β , α and β being the linear and quadratic absorption coefficients, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Max Weituschat
- Instituto de Micro y Nanotecnología, IMN-CNM, CSIC (CEI UAM+CSIC) Isaac Newton, 8, Tres Cantos, E-28760 Madrid, Spain; (J.G.); (D.R.); (P.A.P.)
| | - Walter Dickmann
- Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Bundesallee 100, D-38116 Braunschweig, Germany;
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, LENA Laboratory for Emerging Nanometrology, Universitätsplatz 2, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Joaquín Guimbao
- Instituto de Micro y Nanotecnología, IMN-CNM, CSIC (CEI UAM+CSIC) Isaac Newton, 8, Tres Cantos, E-28760 Madrid, Spain; (J.G.); (D.R.); (P.A.P.)
| | - Daniel Ramos
- Instituto de Micro y Nanotecnología, IMN-CNM, CSIC (CEI UAM+CSIC) Isaac Newton, 8, Tres Cantos, E-28760 Madrid, Spain; (J.G.); (D.R.); (P.A.P.)
| | - Stefanie Kroker
- Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Bundesallee 100, D-38116 Braunschweig, Germany;
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, LENA Laboratory for Emerging Nanometrology, Universitätsplatz 2, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Pablo Aitor Postigo
- Instituto de Micro y Nanotecnología, IMN-CNM, CSIC (CEI UAM+CSIC) Isaac Newton, 8, Tres Cantos, E-28760 Madrid, Spain; (J.G.); (D.R.); (P.A.P.)
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Zhong J, Alibakhshi MA, Xie Q, Riordon J, Xu Y, Duan C, Sinton D. Exploring Anomalous Fluid Behavior at the Nanoscale: Direct Visualization and Quantification via Nanofluidic Devices. Acc Chem Res 2020; 53:347-357. [PMID: 31922716 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.9b00411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Nanofluidics is the study of fluids under nanoscale confinement, where small-scale effects dictate fluid physics and continuum assumptions are no longer fully valid. At this scale, because of large surface-area-to-volume ratios, the fluid interaction with boundaries becomes more pronounced, and both short-range steric/hydration forces and long-range van der Waals forces and electrostatic forces dictate fluid behavior. These forces lead to a spectrum of anomalous transport and thermodynamic phenomena such as ultrafast water flow, enhanced ion transport, extreme phase transition temperatures, and slow biomolecule diffusion, which have been the subject of extensive computational studies. Experimental quantification of these phenomena was also enabled by the advent of nanofluidic technology, which has transformed challenging nanoscale fluid measurements into facile optical and electrical recordings. Our groups' focus is to investigate nanoscale (2 to 103 nm) fluid behaviors in the context of fluid mechanics and thermodynamics through the development of novel nanofluidic tools, to examine the applicability of classical equations at the nanoscale, to identify the source of deviations, and to explore new physics emerging at this scale. In this Account, we summarize our recent findings regarding liquid transport, vaporization, and condensation of nanoscale-confined liquids. Our study of nanoscale water transport identified an additional resistance in hydrophilic nanochannels, attributed to the reduced cross-sectional area caused by the formation of an immobile hydration layer on the surfaces. In contrast, a reduction in flow resistance was discovered in graphene-coated hydrophobic nanochannels, due to water slippage on the graphene surface. In the context of vaporization, the kinetic-limited evaporation flux was measured and found to exceed the classical theoretical prediction by an order of magnitude in hydrophilic nanochannels/nanopores as a result of the thin film evaporation outside of the apertures. This factor was eliminated by modifying the hydrophobicity of the aperture's exterior surface, enabling the identification of the true kinetic limits inside nanoconfinements and a crucial confinement-dependent evaporation coefficient. The transport-limited evaporation dynamics was also quantified, where experimental results confirmed the parallel diffusion-convection resistance model in both single nanoconduits and nanoporous systems at high accuracy. Furthermore, we have extended our studies to different aspects of condensation in nanoscale-confined spaces. The initiation of condensation for a single-component hydrocarbon was observed to follow the Kelvin equation, whereas for hydrocarbon mixtures it deviated from classical theory because of surface-selective adsorption, which has been corroborated by simulations. Moreover, the condensation dynamics deviates from the bulk and is governed by either vapor transport or liquid transport depending on the confinement scale. Overall, by using novel nanofluidic devices and measurement strategies, our work explores and further verifies the applicability of classical fluid mechanics and thermodynamic equations such as the Navier-Stokes, Kelvin, and Hertz-Knudsen equations at the nanoscale. The results not only deepen our understanding of the fundamental physical phenomena of nanoscale fluids but also have important implications for various industrial applications such as water desalination, oil extraction/recovery, and thermal management. Looking forward, we see tremendous opportunities for nanofluidic devices in probing and quantifying nanoscale fluid thermophysical properties and more broadly enabling nanoscale chemistry and materials science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Zhong
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Mohammad Amin Alibakhshi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Quan Xie
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Jason Riordon
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Yi Xu
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Chuanhua Duan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - David Sinton
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
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Yang N, Wang Z, Xu J, Gui L, Tang Z, Zhang Y, Yi M, Yue S, Xu S. Multifunctional Freestanding Microprobes for Potential Biological Applications. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 19:E2328. [PMID: 31137584 PMCID: PMC6567016 DOI: 10.3390/s19102328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Revised: 04/20/2019] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Deep-level sensors for detecting the local temperatures of inner organs and tissues of an animal are rarely reported. In this paper, we present a method to fabricate multifunctional micro-probes with standard cleanroom procedures, using a piece of stainless-steel foil as the substrate. On each of the as-fabricated micro-probes, arrays of thermocouples made of Pd-Cr thin-film stripes with reliable thermal sensing functions were built, together with Pd electrode openings for detecting electrical signals. The as-fabricated sword-shaped freestanding microprobes with length up to 30 mm showed excellent mechanical strength and elastic properties when they were inserted into the brain and muscle tissues of live rats, as well as suitable electrochemical properties and, therefore, are promising for potential biological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nana Yang
- Key Laboratory for the Physics & Chemistry of Nanodevices and Department of Electronics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
| | - Zhenhai Wang
- Key Laboratory for the Physics & Chemistry of Nanodevices and Department of Electronics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
| | - Jingjing Xu
- Key Laboratory for the Physics & Chemistry of Nanodevices and Department of Electronics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
- School of Microelectronics, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China.
| | - Lijiang Gui
- Department of Micro-Nano Fabrication Technology, Institute of Electrical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China.
| | - Zhiqiang Tang
- Key Laboratory for the Physics & Chemistry of Nanodevices and Department of Electronics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
| | - Yuqi Zhang
- Neuroscience Research Institute and Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Ming Yi
- Neuroscience Research Institute and Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Shuanglin Yue
- Key Laboratory for the Physics & Chemistry of Nanodevices and Department of Electronics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
| | - Shengyong Xu
- Key Laboratory for the Physics & Chemistry of Nanodevices and Department of Electronics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
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