Postoperative and late survival outcomes after major amputation: findings from the Department of Veterans Affairs National Surgical Quality Improvement Program

Exploring the Relationship Between SVS WIfI and IWGDF Scoring Systems and Reamputation Risk in Patients With Diabetic Foot and Peripheral Artery Disease

Determining the optimal amputation level in diabetic foot (DF) and peripheral artery disease (PAD) patients is crucial for minimizing reamputation risk while preserving functionality. The Society for Vascular Surgery Wound, Ischemia, and Foot Infection (SVS WIfI) and International Working Group on Diabetic Foot (IWGDF) scoring systems are widely used for risk stratification, but their predictive value for reamputation remains unclear. The current study aimed to evaluate the predictive utility of these scoring systems for reamputation risk in patients undergoing amputations due to DF or PAD. A retrospective cohort study was conducted on 108 patients who underwent unilateral amputations due to DF or PAD between 2016 and 2021. Patients were categorized based on WIfI and IWGDF classifications, and clinical outcomes, including reamputation rates, ICU admissions, and mortality, were analyzed using logistic regression and post hoc analyses. Reamputation occurred in 41 (38%) patients. Higher WIfI (OR: 3.85, 95% CI: 2.10-7.05, P = .001) and severe IWGDF scores (OR: 3.25, 95% CI: 1.80-5.88, P = .008) significantly correlated with increased reamputation risk. Patients with high-risk scores also exhibited higher ICU admission (P = .03) and mortality rates (P = .01). Male gender (OR: 3.47, 95% CI: 1.45-8.31, P = .005), diabetes (OR: 2.32, 95% CI: 1.10-4.90, P = .027), and prolonged hospitalization (OR: 1.04, 95% CI: 1.01-1.08, P = .021) were independent predictors, while above-ankle amputations were protective for reamputation (OR: 0.22, 95% CI: 0.11-0.43, P < .001). Both scoring systems are effective in predicting reamputation risk, with WIfI providing a more comprehensive risk assessment. Combining these tools may enhance decision-making and improve patient outcomes in terms of reamputation prevention, hospital stay, ICU admission, and mortality.

Increased Risk of End-Stage Kidney Disease After Traumatic Amputation: Nationwide Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Amputation confers disabilities upon patients and is associated with substantial cardiovascular and metabolic morbidity and mortality. We aimed to compare the incidence of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) between individuals with amputation and the general population.

METHODS

A population-based retrospective cohort study was performed using the Nationwide Health Insurance Service database for the period between 2010 and 2018. A total of 24,925 individuals with amputation were included with a ratio of 1:3 age- and sex-matched controls. A Cox proportional hazards regression analysis was used to calculate the risk of ESKD among amputees.

RESULTS

During a mean follow-up period of 4.3 years, there were 40 incident ESKD cases (0.4 per 1000 person-years) among individuals with amputation. Individuals with amputation showed a higher risk of ESKD (adjusted HR [aHR] of 1.75, 95% confidence interval [CI] of 1.20-2.54) compared with matched controls. The risk was further increased in those with mild disability (aHR of 1.41, 95% CI of 0.51-3.87) and severe disability (aHR of 8.22, 95% CI of 2.99-22.61). When considering the levels of amputation, the association was apparently more prominent in proximal than distal amputation, in particular for proximal upper limb amputation (aHR of 17.90, 95% CI of 4.37-73.40).

CONCLUSIONS

Individuals with amputation were at a significantly greater risk of ESKD than the general population, particularly subjects with severe disability and proximal amputation. Our data suggest that amputations should be added to the list of risk factors for the development of chronic kidney disease.

Patients Experience Significant Long-Term Social and Health Challenges After Major Lower Extremity Amputation

BACKGROUND

Major lower extremity amputation is a significant life-changing event that can have long-term implications. The goal of this study was to assess long-term medical outcomes and social determinants of health (SDH) challenges in this population.

METHODS

A retrospective review of major lower extremity (previously mentioned ankle) amputations (2018-2022) was performed at a safety-net tertiary care center. Patients who participated in an SDH survey between 6 months and 1.5 years postoperatively were included for survey analysis. Patient demographics, comorbidities, and perioperative and long-term outcomes were analyzed.

RESULTS

There were 100 patients included. Mean age was 61.5 years and 23% were of female gender. The majority (57%) were Black race, 20% White race, and 21% Hispanic ethnicity. Comorbidities included diabetes (78%), chronic kidney disease (51%), coronary artery disease (31%), congestive heart failure (23%), previous cerebrovascular events (19%), and 37% used opioids preadmission. At baseline, the majority (62%) lived at home. Guillotine amputation was performed in 24%, with definitive amputation in the following and previously mentioned knee in 67% and 33%, respectively. Median length of stay was 7 days. Readmission at 30 days, 90 days, and 1 year was 13%, 30%, and 43% respectively. The average follow up was 839 days. At long-term follow up, 55% lived at home, 25% used opioids, and only 25% were independently ambulatory. In the SDH survey at follow up, 32% identified at least one SDH challenge, with younger patients more often affected (58 vs. 63 years, P = 0.031). SDH challenges consisted of food insecurity (17%), housing insecurity (13%), transportation challenges (13%), seeking employment (8%), difficulty paying for utilities (5%) and medications (4%), seeking further education (5%), and difficulty caring for family/friends (4%). On multivariable analysis, having at least one SDH challenge was independently associated with 1-year readmission (odds ratio 6.7, 95% confidence interval 1.3-35.8, P < 0.001). Older age was associated with lower long-term independent ambulation (odds ratio 0.92, 95% confidence interval 0.85-0.99, P = 0.025).

CONCLUSIONS

After major lower extremity amputation, patients have significant medical and social challenges with fewer living at home, the majority were not independently ambulatory, and one-third having at least one SDH challenge. Improvements in long-term support including medical, social, and rehabilitation services are required for this vulnerable population.

Predicting Functional Outcomes Following Dysvascular Lower Limb Amputation: An Evidence Review of Personalizing Patient Outcomes

Most research on people undergoing lower limb amputations for dysvascular disease summarizes average patient outcome risks and average associations between patient factors and these outcomes. More recently, the importance of predicting patient-specific outcomes based on individual factors (ie, personalized rehabilitation) has become evident. This article reviews the evidence and discusses the importance of the following: (1) predicting outcomes to facilitate amputation-level and prosthesis prescription decisions and (2) how prediction models can be leveraged to develop decision support tools to facilitate provider/patient shared decision-making to ensure decisions considering each individual patient's priorities and preferences. Examples of these tools are discussed and referenced.

Major Lower Limb Amputation for Chronic Limb-Threatening Ischemia Is Associated with Poor Long-Term Survival: 4-Year Follow-Up of a Single-Center Experience

Objective: Despite advances in medicine, 30% of patients with chronic limb-threatening ischemia (CLTI) require major lower limb amputation (MLLA). The long-term outcome of this cohort is poorly described. Methods: In all, 154 patients undergoing MLLA for CLTI during 2018-2020 were analyzed for short-term and long-term outcomes and prosthesis use. Results: In total, 106 below-knee amputations and 48 above-knee amputations were followed up for a mean duration of 50 months (37-78). The mean age of the cohort was 63 years. The majority were male (60%) with multiple comorbidities, including diabetes (83.8%), hypertension (49.4%), ischemic heart disease (20%), and smoking (32.5%). An equal proportion underwent MLLA as primary (45%) or secondary (55%). 30-day mortality was 6%. The mean length of in-hospital stay was 18 days (3-56). Overall survival rates at 1st, 2nd, and 4th year were 73%, 64%, and 35%, respectively. On a multivariate regression analysis, a higher level of amputation had a significant impact on mortality (p = 0.015). 54% of amputees had a prosthetic limb. However, the primary use of prosthesis was for cosmesis, with only 12% mobile independently. Conclusions: MLLA for CLTI is associated with poor early and long-term survival. Prosthesis use and mobility are extremely poor in the Sri Lankan context.

Prosthetic outcomes after amputation and the impact of mobility level on survival

OBJECTIVE

Lower extremity amputation continues to be necessary in a significant number of patients with peripheral vascular disease. The 5-year survival following lower limb loss is markedly reduced. Many of these patients are never fitted with a prosthesis, and there is a dearth of knowledge regarding the barriers to prosthetic attainment. The goal of this study was to identify the risk factors for not receiving a prosthesis and the effect of mobility level on survival following major amputation.

METHODS

This was a retrospective analysis of all patients that underwent lower extremity amputation by surgeons in our practice from January 1, 2010, to December 31, 2019. Abstracted data included: age, sex, race, body mass index, comorbidities, American Society of Anesthesiologists score, statin use, level of amputation, stump revision, fitting for prosthesis, type of prosthesis, and the United States' Medicare Functional Classification Level, also called K level. Survival was determined using a combination of sources, including the Social Security Death Master File, searches of multiple genealogic registries, and general internet searches. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine risk factors associated with prosthesis attainment. Multivariable Cox proportional hazard regression with time-dependent covariates was performed to assess risk factors associated with 5-year mortality.

RESULTS

A total of 464 patients were included in this study. The mean age was 65 years, and mean body mass index was 27 kg/m2. The majority of patients were male (68%), White (56%), diabetic (62%), and hypertensive (76%), and underwent below-the-knee amputation (69%). Prosthetic attainment occurred in 185 (40%). On multivariable analysis, age >81 years and current tobacco use were associated with no prosthetic fitting. Overall 5-year survival was 41.9% (95% confidence interval [CI], 37.6%-46.6%) (below-the-knee amputation, 47.7% [95% CI, 42.5%-53.5%]; above-the-knee amputation, 28.7% [95% CI, 22.1%-37.2%]). On multivariable analysis, age >60 years, congestive heart failure, above-the-knee amputation, and no prosthetic attainment were associated with decreased survival. Increasing K level was incrementally associated with improved survival.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has identified several patient factors associated with prosthetic attainment, as well as multiple factors predictive of reduced survival after amputation. Being referred for prosthetic fitting was associated with improved survival not explained by patient characteristics and comorbidities. The Medicare Functional Classification Level K level predicts survival. More research is needed to determine the barriers to prosthetic attainment and if improving a patients K level will improve survival.

Moderate and Severe Chronic Kidney Disease Predict Greater 5-Year Mortality following Major Lower-Extremity Amputation

BACKGROUND

Severe chronic kidney disease (CKD) predicts greater mortality after major lower-extremity amputation (LEA), but it remains poorly understood whether patients with earlier stages of CKD share similar risk.

METHODS

We assessed long-term postoperative outcomes for patients with CKD in a retrospective chart review of 565 patients who underwent atraumatic major LEA at a large tertiary referral center from 2015 to 2021. We stratified patients by renal function and compared outcomes including survival.

RESULTS

Preoperative CKD diagnosis was related to many patient characteristics, co-occurred with many comorbidities, and was associated with less follow-up and survival. Kaplan-Meier and Cox Regression analyses showed significantly worse 5-year survival for major LEA patients with mild, moderate, or severe CKD compared to major LEA patients with no history of CKD at the time of amputation (P < 0.001). Severe CKD independently predicted worse mortality at 1-year (odds ratio [OR] 2.91; P = 0.003) and 5-years (OR 3.08; P < 0.001). Moderate CKD independently predicted worse 5-year mortality (OR 2.66; P = 0.029).

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that moderate and severe CKD predict greater long-term mortality following major LEA when controlling for numerous potential confounders. This finding raises questions about the underlying mechanism if causal and highlights an opportunity to improve outcomes with earlier recognition and optimization CKD preoperatively.

Internal Iliac Artery Patency as a Predictor of Above-Knee Amputation Stump Healing

BACKGROUND

The primary aim of this study was to assess the role of internal iliac patency in predicting outcomes of above-knee amputation (AKA) stump healing. The secondary objectives were to assess the accuracy of Wound, Ischemia, and Foot Infection (WIfI) classification system in predicting AKA stump healing and its association with delayed mortality.

METHODS

This is a retrospective study performed in a vascular surgery unit in a tertiary hospital on patients who underwent AKAs over 1 year, from July 2021 until June 2022. Patient demographic data, WIfI scoring, outcome of AKAs, and patency of profunda femoris and internal iliac artery (IIA) were collected. To minimize confounding, a single vascular surgeon performed all computed tomography imaging reviews and arterial measurements. Approval for this study was obtained from the National Research Registry, NMRR ID-23-01865-KQ4 (investigator initiated research).

RESULTS

Ninety patients underwent AKA over 1 year, from July 2021 until June 2022. Occluded IIA in the presence of patent profunda femoris did not affect the wound healing of the AKA stump. There was significant association between WIfI scoring and mortality. Patients with a WIfI scoring of 3 to 4 were observed to have a higher mortality rate compared with patients with normal healing: 47 (72.0%) vs. 4 (80.0%); P = 0.021.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, the IIA patency shows no statistically significant effect on AKA stump healing; however, the small number of patients is a drawback of the study. This study also demonstrates that the WIfI score can be a prognostic factor for mortality in patients undergoing AKA.

Predisposing Factors for 30-Day Complications Following Leg Amputation

BACKGROUND

Although amputation rates, morbidity, and mortality have been established for select populations, the impact of general demographic factors on postoperative surgical complications remains little studied.

METHODS

The American College of Surgeons' National Surgical Quality Improvement Program database was searched for leg amputations from 2012 to 2017 using CPT codes 27881, 27882, 27884, and 27886, identifying 4162 patients. A total of 29 demographic variables with 4 complications (surgical infection, additional service, and deep-vein thrombosis [DVT], and sepsis) were analyzed.

RESULTS

Preoperative open, contaminated, or dirty/infected wounds; longer intraoperative times; development of sepsis prior to surgery; and admission of patients from home or another hospital influenced postoperative infection rates. Preoperative open, infected, or dirty/infected wounds; height; weight; total length of hospital stay; and ethnicity affected postoperative additional service incidence. Preoperative congestive heart failure, large decreases in body weight, and total length of hospital stay influenced postoperative DVT rates. Preoperative functional heath status, total length of hospital stay, amputations conducted as emergency cases, preoperative acute renal failure, open or infected wounds, sepsis, and contaminated or dirty/infected wounds affected postoperative sepsis rates.

BACKGROUND

Conclusion. Understanding these risk factors may allow providers to anticipate and address higher rates of complications in certain patient populations.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III: Prognostic.

Outcome predictors of patients who underwent limb amputation/s following trauma at a level I trauma center in North India

PURPOSE

Limb amputation is one of the oldest medical operations, dating back over 2500 years to Hippocrates' time. In developing countries like India, most of the patients are young, and trauma is the primary cause of limb amputation. The objectives of this study were to investigate the factors that can predict the outcome of patients who underwent upper or lower limb amputations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This was a retrospective analysis of the prospectively collected data of patients who underwent limb amputations from January 2015 to December 2019.

RESULTS

From January 2015 to December 2019, 547 patients underwent limb amputations. Males predominated (86%). Road traffic injuries (RTI) were the most common (323, 59%) mechanism of injury. Hemorrhagic shock was present in 125 (22.9%) patients. Above-knee amputation was the most common (33%) amputation procedure performed. The correlation of hemodynamic status at presentation with the outcome was statistically significant (p-0.001). Outcome measures like delayed presentation, hemorrhagic shock, Injury severity scores (ISS), and the new injury severity scores (NISS) were statistically significant (p-0.001) when compared to the outcome. There were 47 (8.6%) mortalities during the study period.

CONCLUSION

Factors that affected the outcome were delayed presentation, hemorrhagic shock, higher ISS, NISS, MESS scores, surgical-site infection, and associated injuries. Overall mortality during the study was 8.6%.

Chronic Kidney Disease Predicts Greater 5-Year Mortality Following Major Limb Amputation

Severe chronic kidney disease (CKD) predicts greater mortality after major lower extremity amputation (MLEA), but it remains poorly understood whether this finding extends to patients with earlier stages of CKD. We assessed outcomes for patients with CKD in a retrospective chart review of all patients who underwent MLEA at a large tertiary referral center from 2015 to 2021. We stratified 398 patients by glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and conducted Chi-Square and survival analysis. Preoperative CKD diagnosis was associated with many comorbidities, less 1-year follow-up, and greater 1- and 5-year mortality. Kaplan-Meier analysis showed worse 5-year survival for patients with any stage of CKD (62%) compared to patients without CKD (81%; P < .001). Greater 5-year mortality was independently predicted by moderate CKD (hazard ratio (HR) 2.37, P = .02) as well as severe CKD (HR 2.09, P = .005). These findings demonstrate the importance of identifying and treating CKD early preoperatively.

Life Expectancy and Mortality After Lower Extremity Amputation: Overview and Analysis of Literature

Lower limb amputation (LLA) is a major surgical procedure with a significant impact on quality of life and mortality rates as well. Previous studies have shown that mortality rates following LLA can range from 9-17% within 30 days in the UK. This study systematically evaluates and reviews the published literature on life expectancy, mortality, and survival rates following lower extremity amputation (LEA). We have conducted a comprehensive search on Medline, CINAHL, and Cochrane Central databases resulting in 87 full-text articles. After a thorough review, only 45 (52.9%) articles met the minimum inclusion criteria for the study. Our analysis indicated 30-day mortality rates following LEA ranged from 7.1% to 51.4%, with an average mortality rate of 16.45% (SD 14.35) per study. Furthermore, 30-day mortality rates following below-knee amputation (BKA) and above-knee amputation (AKA) were found to be between 6.2% to 51.4%, X= 17.16% ± 19.46 SD and 12.7 to 21.7%, X= 16.15% ± 4.17 SD, respectively. Our review provides a comprehensive insight into the life expectancy, mortality, and survival rates following LEA. These findings highlight the importance of considering various factors, including patient age, presence of comorbidities such as diabetes, heart failure, and renal failure, and lifestyle factors such as smoking, in determining prognosis following LLA. Further research is necessary to determine strategies for improving outcomes and reducing mortality in this patient population.

Analysis of 5-year Mortality following Lower Extremity Amputation due to Vascular Disease

Mortality rates following major lower extremity amputations (LEAs) 30 days-365 days postoperative have decreased, but 5-year rates remain high at 40.4%-70%. These data may not reflect recent advances in peripheral arterial disease (PAD) care, and comorbidities of chronic PAD may lead to mortality more frequently than the amputation itself. Mortality rates between diabetic and nondiabetic patients were also analyzed.

Methods

The California Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development hospital database was queried for patients admitted January 1, 2007-December 31, 2018. ICD-9-CM codes identified patients with vascular disease and an amputation procedure.

Results

There were 26,669 patients. The 30-day, 90-day, 1-year, and 5-year major LEA mortality rates were 4.82%, 8.62%, 12.47%, and 18.11%, respectively. Weighted averages of 30-day, 90-day, 1-year, and 5-year major LEA mortality rates in the literature are 13%, 15.40%, 47.93%, and 60.60%, respectively. Mortality risk associated with vascular disease after amputation (hazard ratio = 22.07) was 11 times greater than risk associated with amputation-specific complications from impaired mobility (hazard ratio = 1.90; P < 0.01). Having diabetes was associated with lower mortality at 30 days, 90 days, and 1 year (P < 0.01) but not at 5 years (P = 0.22).

Conclusions

This study suggests that people may be living longer after their major LEA than was previously thought. This study suggests that patients' PAD may play a bigger role in contributing to their mortality than complications from loss of mobility postamputation. Although having diabetes was associated with lower postamputation mortality, the difference was no longer significant by 5 years.

Short-term risk prediction after major lower limb amputation: PERCEIVE study

BACKGROUND

The accuracy with which healthcare professionals (HCPs) and risk prediction tools predict outcomes after major lower limb amputation (MLLA) is uncertain. The aim of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of predicting short-term (30 days after MLLA) mortality, morbidity, and revisional surgery.

METHODS

The PERCEIVE (PrEdiction of Risk and Communication of outcomE following major lower limb amputation: a collaboratIVE) study was launched on 1 October 2020. It was an international multicentre study, including adults undergoing MLLA for complications of peripheral arterial disease and/or diabetes. Preoperative predictions of 30-day mortality, morbidity, and MLLA revision by surgeons and anaesthetists were recorded. Probabilities from relevant risk prediction tools were calculated. Evaluation of accuracy included measures of discrimination, calibration, and overall performance.

RESULTS

Some 537 patients were included. HCPs had acceptable discrimination in predicting mortality (931 predictions; C-statistic 0.758) and MLLA revision (565 predictions; C-statistic 0.756), but were poor at predicting morbidity (980 predictions; C-statistic 0.616). They overpredicted the risk of all outcomes. All except three risk prediction tools had worse discrimination than HCPs for predicting mortality (C-statistics 0.789, 0.774, and 0.773); two of these significantly overestimated the risk compared with HCPs. SORT version 2 (the only tool incorporating HCP predictions) demonstrated better calibration and overall performance (Brier score 0.082) than HCPs. Tools predicting morbidity and MLLA revision had poor discrimination (C-statistics 0.520 and 0.679).

CONCLUSION

Clinicians predicted mortality and MLLA revision well, but predicted morbidity poorly. They overestimated the risk of mortality, morbidity, and MLLA revision. Most short-term risk prediction tools had poorer discrimination or calibration than HCPs. The best method of predicting mortality was a statistical tool that incorporated HCP estimation.

Preoperative Transcutaneous Oxygen Perfusion Measurements in Predicting Atraumatic Wound Healing After Major Lower Extremity Amputation

This study examined the correlation between preoperative transcutaneous oxygen perfusion (TcPO₂) measurement and the success of wound healing after major lower extremity amputation. There is no validated consensus on how to accurately determine appropriate amputation levels. A TcPO₂ greater than 30 to 40 mm Hg is widely cited as a positive predictor of postoperative wound healing, but its validity has not been well defined. A retrospective chart review was performed for patients who underwent above-knee amputation (AKA), through-knee amputation, or below-knee amputation (BKA) at a single institution from 2012 to 2018 with preoperative TcPO₂ values and a minimum 30-day postoperative clinical follow-up. This review yielded 141 total amputations: 93 BKAs, 6 through-knee amputations, and 42 AKAs. Fifty-five amputations were unsuccessful, defined by postoperative wound dehiscence or infection. Of these, 37 were BKAs, 4 were through-knee amputations, and 14 were AKAs. There was a significant difference in preoperative TcPO₂ between the successful and unsuccessful amputations, at 46.2 and 38.3 mm Hg, respectively (P=.02). A TcPO₂ of 30 to 40 mm Hg showed a 68.8% success rate, and a TcPO₂ of less than 20 mm Hg showed an 18.2% success rate. A receiver operating characteristic curve for TcPO₂ predicting amputation success had an area under the curve of 0.53 for AKAs and 0.61 for BKAs; the diagnostic ability is far from prognostic. There is no linear association between TcPO₂ and success rate. A TcPO₂ of less than 20 mm Hg has a high positive predictive value for failure, but higher levels are not 100% predictive of wound healing success after amputation, as previously reported. [Orthopedics. 2022;45(3):174-180.].

Understanding the experience of veterans who require lower limb amputation in the veterans health administration

Purpose

There is limited qualitative research on the experience of patients undergoing lower limb amputation due to chronic limb threatening ischemia (CLTI) and their participation in amputation-level decisions. This study was performed to understand patient lived experiences related to amputation and patient involvement in shared decision making.

Materials and methods

Phenomenological interviews were conducted with Veterans 6–12 months post transtibial or transmetatarsal amputation due to CLTI. Interviews were read and summarized by two analysts who discussed the contents of each interview and relationships between interviews to identify emergent, cross-cutting elements of patient experience.

Results

Twelve patients were interviewed between March and August 2019. Three cross cutting elements of patient lived experience and participation in shared decision making were identified: 1) Lacking a sense of decision making; 2) Actively working towards recovery as response to a perceived loss of independence; and 3) Experiencing amputation as a Veteran.

Conclusions

Patients did not report a high level of involvement in shared decision making about their amputation or amputation level. Understanding patient experiences and priorities is crucial to supporting shared decision making for Veterans with amputation due to CLTI.

Current Predictors of Mortality in Veteran Patients Undergoing Major Lower Extremity Amputations: Risk Factors Have Not Changed and Mortality Remains High

Major lower extremity amputation (LEA-above the ankle) carries a high rate of mortality. In the present study, we performed an institutional review of all patients submitting to LEAs at a Veteran Administration Hospital (between 2009 and 2021) accompanied with a review of the literature.For the past 12 years, 1042 LEAs were performed in 603 patients at our hospital. The 30-day, 1-year, and 5-year mortalities were 8.5%, 28.9%, and 53.0%, respectively. Age, hypoalbuminemia, and Clavien-Dindo Class were independent predictors of mortality in all the time intervals in the analysis. Cardiac disease was not an independent predictor of mortality. In 39 studies reviewed, the average 30-day, 1-year, and 5-year mortality was 14%, 36%, and 56%, respectively. There was no difference in mortality in multiple studies analyzed. No significant temporal variation was identified between 1950 and 2000 vs. 2001 and 2021. Predictors of mortality were not substantially different from our institutional experience.The mortality rate for LEAs remains constant over time. Increasing age and hypoalbuminemia are strong predictors of short- and long-term mortality.

The PERCEIVE quantitative study: PrEdiction of Risk and Communication of outcome following major lower-limb amputation: protocol for a collaboratiVE study

BACKGROUND

Accurate prediction of outcomes following surgery with high morbidity and mortality rates is essential for informed shared decision-making between patients and clinicians. It is unknown how accurately healthcare professionals predict outcomes following major lower-limb amputation (MLLA). Several MLLA outcome-prediction tools have been developed. These could be valuable in clinical practice, but most require validation in independent cohorts before routine clinical use can be recommended. The primary aim of this study is to evaluate the accuracy of healthcare professionals' predictions of outcomes in adult patients undergoing MLLA for complications of chronic limb-threatening ischaemia (CLTI) or diabetes. Secondary aims include the validation of existing outcome-prediction tools.

METHOD

This study is an international, multicentre prospective observational study including adult patients undergoing a primary MLLA for CLTI or diabetes. Healthcare professionals' accuracy in predicting outcomes at 30-days (death, morbidity and MLLA revision) and 1-year (death, MLLA revision and ambulation) will be evaluated. Sixteen existing outcome-prediction tools specific to MLLA will be examined for validity. Data collection began on 1 October 2020; the end of follow-up will be 1 May 2022. The C-statistic, Hosmer-Lemeshow test, reclassification tables and Brier score will be used to evaluate the predictive performance of healthcare professionals and prediction tools, respectively.

STUDY REGISTRATION AND DISSEMINATION

This study will be registered locally at each centre in accordance with local policies before commencing data collection, overseen by local clinician leads. Results will be disseminated to all centres, and any subsequent presentation(s) and/or publication(s) will follow a collaborative co-authorship model.

Hypoalbuminemia is Associated with Mortality in Patients Undergoing Lower Extremity Amputation

BACKGROUND

Poor nutritional status is common among patients undergoing lower extremity amputation (LEA). In this study, the association between preoperative hypoalbuminemia, a marker for malnutrition, and postoperative mortality in patients undergoing LEA was explored.

METHODS

Data on patients undergoing LEA between 2005 and 2017 were retrospectively analyzed from the prospectively collected American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program database. Patients were divided into clinically relevant categories based on their serum albumin level (<2.5, 2.5-3.39, ≥3.4 g/dl) and were further stratified according to amputation level. Operative death was compared across groups and multivariable logistic regression was performed to estimate risk-adjusted odds ratio (AOR).

RESULTS

In 35,383 patients, the rate of 30-day postoperative mortality was 7.6% (n = 2693). Mortality rate was highest in patients with very low albumin levels (11%) as compared to low (6.8%) and normal levels (3.9%). On multivariable analysis, lower albumin levels emerged as a risk-adjusted independent predictor of mortality. After risk-adjustment, patients with very low albumin levels (AOR [95% CI]: 2.25 [1.969-2.56], P < 0.001) and low albumin levels (AOR [95% CI]: 1.42 [1.239-1.616], P < 0.001) had higher odds of mortality when compared to patients with normal albumin levels. On sensitivity analysis, a similar trend was seen in patients undergoing above knee amputation but not in patients undergoing minor amputations.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients undergoing major LEA, hypoalbuminemia is associated with an increased risk of postoperative mortality in a dose response manner, specifically in above knee amputations. Monitoring and optimizing patients' nutritional status before surgery, when possible, may be warranted and should be further explored.

A Systematic Review and Narrative Synthesis of Risk Prediction Tools Used to Estimate Mortality, Morbidity, and Other Outcomes Following Major Lower Limb Amputation

OBJECTIVE

The decision to undertake a major lower limb amputation can be complex. This review evaluates the performance of risk prediction tools in estimating mortality, morbidity, and other outcomes following amputation.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane databases were searched to identify studies reporting on risk prediction tools that predict outcomes following amputation. Outcome measures included the accuracy of the risk tool in predicting a range of post-operative complications, including mortality (both short and long term), peri-operative morbidity, need for re-amputation, and ambulation success. A narrative synthesis was performed in accordance with the Guidance on the Conduct of Narrative Synthesis In Systematic Reviews.

RESULTS

The search identified 518 database records. Twelve observational studies, evaluating 13 risk prediction tools in a total cohort of 61 099 amputations, were included. One study performed external validation of an existing risk prediction tool, while all other studies developed novel tools or modified pre-existing generic calculators. Two studies conducted external validation of the novel/modified tools. Nine tools provided risk estimations for mortality, two tools provided predictions for post-operative morbidity, two for likelihood of ambulation, and one for re-amputation to the same or higher level. Most mortality prediction tools demonstrated acceptable discrimination performance with C statistic values ranging from 0.65 to 0.81. Tools estimating the risk of post-operative complications (0.65 - 0.74) and necessity for re-amputation (0.72) also performed acceptably. The Blatchford Allman Russell tool demonstrated outstanding discrimination for predicting functional mobility outcomes post-amputation (0.94). Overall, most studies were at high risk of bias with poor external validity.

CONCLUSION

This review identified several risk prediction tools that demonstrate acceptable to outstanding discrimination for objectively predicting an array of important post-operative outcomes. However, the methodological quality of some studies was poor, external validation studies are generally lacking, and there are no tools predicting other important outcomes, especially quality of life.

The Effects of Endovascular Timing and In-line Flow on the Success of Pedal Amputations

There has been a growing trend toward endovascular intervention to improve peripheral flow in patients with peripheral arterial disease. To date, there is no clear consensus regarding timing of lower-extremity amputations after revascularization. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of timing between endovascular intervention and minor lower-extremity amputations and its influence on wound healing and limb loss within 1 year. A secondary purpose was to evaluate the impact of restoring in-line flow on healing rates. A total of 310 patients who underwent endovascular intervention and a minor lower-extremity amputation within 90 days were included in the study. Healing rates were defined as optimal, delayed, or failure. There was a statistically significant difference between patients with optimal healing to delayed healing and amputation ≥30 days after endovascular intervention (p = .037). We found no difference in healing rates in regard to amputation timing when examining patients who ultimately healed versus patients who failed to heal (p = .6717). Absence of in-line flow (p = .0177), male sex (p = .0090) and diabetes mellitus (p = .0076) were statistically significant factors for failing to heal. Presence of infection (p ≤ .0001) and wound dehiscence (p ≤ .001) were also associated with a failure to heal. End-stage renal disease trended toward significance for failing to heal (p = .065). Amputation-free survival at 1 year after endovascular intervention and pedal amputation was 76.8% (n = 238). Our findings suggest that in the absence of infection, performing minor lower-extremity amputations 15 to 60 days after endovascular intervention may allow for improved healing. Absence of in-line flow, male sex, diabetes mellitus, postoperative infection, and wound dehiscence are significant factors for failure.

Sex, age, and other barriers for prosthetic referral following amputation and the impact on survival

BACKGROUND

Despite advances in peripheral vascular disease treatment, lower extremity amputation continues to be necessary in a significant number of patients. Up to 80% of amputees are not referred for prosthetic fitting. The factors contributing to referral decisions have not been adequately investigated, nor has the impact of prosthetic referral on survival. We characterized differences between patients who were successfully referred to our in-house prosthetists and those who were not, and identified factors associated with prosthetic referral and predictive of survival.

METHODS

This was a retrospective analysis of all patients who underwent lower extremity amputation by surgeons in our practice from January 1, 2010, to June 30, 2017. Data regarding age, sex, race, body mass index (BMI), diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, end-stage renal disease, prior coronary artery bypass graft surgery, congestive heart failure, tobacco use, American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) score, previous arterial procedure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, statin use, postoperative ambulatory status, level of amputation, stump revision, and referral for prosthesis were collected. Survival was determined from a combination of sources, including the Social Security Death Master Index, multiple genealogic registries, and internet searches. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine risk factors associated with prosthesis referral. Multivariable Cox proportional hazard regression with time-dependent covariates was performed to assess risk factors associated with 5-year mortality.

RESULTS

There were 293 patients included in this study. Mean age was 66 years, and mean BMI 27 kg/m². The majority of patients were male (69%), white (53%), with diabetes (65.4%) and hypertension (77.5%), and underwent below-the-knee amputation (BKA) (73%). Prosthetic referral occurred in 123 (42.0%). Overall 5-year survival was 61.7% (95% confidence interval [CI], 55.9%-68.1%) (BKA 64.7% [95% CI, 57.9%-72.3%]; above-the-knee amputation 53.8% [95% CI, 43.4%-66.6%]). On multivariate analysis, age >70 years, female sex, diabetes, ASA score 4 or 5, and current tobacco use were associated with no referral for prosthetic fitting. Patients with BMI 25 to 30, a previous arterial procedure, BKA, and history of stump revision were more likely to be referred. Factors associated with decreased survival were increasing age, higher ASA class, black race, and BMI; prosthetic referral was seen to be protective.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified multiple patient factors associated with prosthetic referral, as well as several characteristics predictive of reduced survival after amputation. Being referred for prosthetic fitting was associated with improved survival not explained by patient characteristics and comorbidities. Further research is needed to determine whether the factors identified as associated with nonreferral are markers for patient characteristics that make them clinically unsuitable for prosthetic fitting or if they are symptoms of unconscious bias or of the patient's access to care.

Reducing Nontraumatic Lower-Extremity Amputations by 20% by 2030: Time to Get to Our Feet: A Policy Statement From the American Heart Association

Nontraumatic lower-extremity amputation is a devastating complication of peripheral artery disease (PAD) with a high mortality and medical expenditure. There are ≈150 000 nontraumatic leg amputations every year in the United States, and most cases occur in patients with diabetes. Among patients with diabetes, after an ≈40% decline between 2000 and 2009, the amputation rate increased by 50% from 2009 to 2015. A number of evidence-based diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for PAD can reduce amputation risk. However, their implementation and adherence are suboptimal. Some racial/ethnic groups have an elevated risk of PAD but less access to high-quality vascular care, leading to increased rates of amputation. To stop, and indeed reverse, the increasing trends of amputation, actionable policies that will reduce the incidence of critical limb ischemia and enhance delivery of optimal care are needed. This statement describes the impact of amputation on patients and society, summarizes medical approaches to identify PAD and prevent its progression, and proposes policy solutions to prevent limb amputation. Among the actions recommended are improving public awareness of PAD and greater use of effective PAD management strategies (eg, smoking cessation, use of statins, and foot monitoring/care in patients with diabetes). To facilitate the implementation of these recommendations, we propose several regulatory/legislative and organizational/institutional policies such as adoption of quality measures for PAD care; affordable prevention, diagnosis, and management; regulation of tobacco products; clinical decision support for PAD care; professional education; and dedicated funding opportunities to support PAD research. If these recommendations and proposed policies are implemented, we should be able to achieve the goal of reducing the rate of nontraumatic lower-extremity amputations by 20% by 2030.

Optimizing Peripandemic Care for Veteran Major Non-Traumatic Lower Extremity Amputees: A Proposal Informed by a National Retrospective Descriptive Analysis of COVID-19 Risk Factor Prevalence

INTRODUCTION

In response to the Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, vascular surgeons in the Veteran Affairs Health Care System have been undertaking only essential cases, such as advanced critical limb ischemia. Surgical risk assessment in these patients is often complex, considers all factors known to impact short- and long-term outcomes, and the additional risk that COVID-19 infection could convey in this patient population is unknown. The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) published risk factors (ECDC-RF) implicated in increased COVID-19 hospitalization and case-fatality which have been further evidenced by initial reports from the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC reports additionally indicate that African American (AA) patients have incurred disparate infection outcomes in the United States. We set forth to survey the Veterans Affairs Surgical Quality Improvement Program (VASQIP) database over a nearly 20 year span to inform ongoing risk assessment with an estimation of the prevalence of ECDC-RF in our veteran critical limb ischemia population and investigate whether an increased COVID-19 comorbidity burden exists for AA veterans presenting for major non-traumatic amputation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The VASQIP database was queried for all above knee amputation (AKA) and below knee amputation (BKA) completed 1999-2018 after IRB approval (MIRB:#02507). Patient race and ECDC-RF including male gender, age > 60 years, smoking status, hypertension, diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cancer, and cardiovascular disease were recorded from preoperative patient history. AKA and BKA cohorts were compared via χ2-test with Yates correction or unpaired t-test and a subgroup analysis was conducted between AA and all other race patients for COVID-19 comorbidities in each cohort.

RESULTS

VASQIP query returned 50,083 total entries. Average age was 65.1 ± 10.4 years and 68.2 ± 10.5 years for BKA and AKA cohorts, respectively, (P < .0001) and nearly all patients were male (99%). At least one ECDC-RF comorbidity was present in 25,526 (88.7%) of BKA and 17,558 (82.4%) of AKA patients (P < .0001). AA BKA patients were significantly more likely than non-AA BKA patients to present with at least one ECDC-RF comorbidity (P = .01).

CONCLUSIONS

According to a large national Veterans Affairs database, there are high rates of ECDC-RF in veteran amputees. During the present crisis, management of these patients should incorporate telehealth, expedient discharge, and ongoing COVID-19 transmission precautions.

Preoperative sepsis is a predictive factor for 30-day mortality after major lower limb amputation among patients with arteriosclerosis obliterans and diabetes

BACKGROUND

While many patients with lower limb ischemia also have severe infections, few studies have investigated whether the presence of preoperative sepsis affects patient prognosis following lower limb amputation (LLA). Therefore, we investigated the factors (including sepsis as defined in SEPSIS-3) that contribute to the acute mortality rate in patients who underwent LLA due to arteriosclerosis obliterans (ASO) or diabetes mellitus (DM).

METHODS

In this retrospective, single-center, 10-year chart review study, 122 adult patients who underwent LLA due to ASO and/or DM were identified from 56,438 surgery cases. Patient characteristics, including co-morbidities, surgical conditions, the presence/absence of sepsis, and acute physiological condition after surgery, were investigated in patients who died within 30 days of LLA and those who survived. Univariate analysis between groups was performed using the chi-square test. Comparisons of age and American Society of Anesthesiologists-Physical Status classification between groups were performed using the Mann-Whitney U test. Risk factors for 30-day mortality after LLA were examined using stepwise logistic regression (backward elimination). Statistical results were considered significant at P < 0.05.

RESULTS

Eight cases of mortality (6.6%) were found; we identified the causes as sepsis, myocardial infarction, fatal arrhythmia, and mesenteric artery occlusive disease in 5 (62.5%), 1 (12.5%), 1 (12.5%), and 1 (12.5%) cases, respectively. Using univariate analysis, we identified that age (≥74), delirium, sepsis, intensive care unit admission, non-DM (ASO only), hemodialysis, and acute kidney injury were significantly higher in the mortality group. In logistic regression analysis, non-DM (odds ratio [OR]: 35.2, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.8-432) and sepsis (OR: 80.7, 95% CI: 6.7-959) were potential risk factors for 30-day mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that cases resulting in amputation due to ASO pathology alone might have poor prognosis and that preoperative sepsis can increase perioperative mortality; hence, the decision to amputate must be considered before the development of sepsis.

Transmetatarsal amputation: A 12 year retrospective case review of outcomes

BACKGROUND

Diabetic foot pathology has rapidly increased, presenting a vast economic burden with severe implications for patients. Establishing effective limb salvage techniques such as transmetatarsal amputation is essential to offer viable alternatives to major limb amputation in severe foot infection, where outcomes are variable and mortality rates high.

METHODS

A retrospective review of outcomes was performed on patients who underwent TMA at a single United Kingdom hospital between 2005-2017. Healing rate and time to healing, mortality, duration of hospital admission and incidence of revision surgery was evaluated. Forty-seven patients had 54 TMA's by the Podiatric Surgery team. Data was assessed for Mean (SD) and Median. The impact of co-morbidities was considered and the perioperative and surgical management reviewed to identify techniques which may improve outcomes.

RESULTS

A 78% healing rate was achieved. Six patients (11%) died before healing. The aremaining 11% did not heal and resulted in major limb amputation. No further surgery to the same foot was required after the TMA healed. A Median healing time of 83 days was identified and the Median duration of hospital admission was 24 days. Adjunctive wound care products may to have a positive impact on these factors. Five-year mortality was 43%, and demonstrated an association with renal and/or vascular pathology. All patients had diabetes, with many also having Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD). Almost all TMA's failing to heal had PVD. The presence and severity of renal disease also seemed to have a negative impact on wound healing.

CONCLUSION

Positive healing and mortality rates with low need for revision surgery support TMA to be an effective alternative to major limb amputation. Adjunctive agents may have a positive impact on wound healing and length of hospital admission. Skilled surgical technique and Multidisciplinary work is essential for positive long-term outcomes and cost-effective care.

Mobility Analysis of AmpuTees (MAAT 6): Mobility, Satisfaction, and Quality of Life among Long-Term Dysvascular/Diabetic Prosthesis Users-Results of a Cross-Sectional Analysis

Objective

The aim of this study was to establish the mobility, satisfaction, and quality of life (QoL) among prosthesis users with dysvascular/diabetic amputation at both acute and long-term phases of prosthetic rehabilitation.

Methods

This is a multisite, cross-sectional outcomes analysis. A total of 341 individuals met the inclusion/exclusion criteria. Individuals were grouped into acute phases (0–3 months [n = 24], 4–6 months [n = 72]) and chronic phases (24–36 months [n = 91], 37–48 months [n = 53], 49–60 months [n = 47], and 60–84 months [n = 54]) after amputation. Mobility was measured with the Prosthetic Limb Users Survey of Mobility (PLUS-M), whereas QoL and satisfaction (Sat) were reported using 10-point scales adapted from the Prosthesis Evaluation Questionnaire–Well-Being (PEQ-WB). Composite PEQ-WB scores were also compared.

Results

The average mobility, QoL, and Sat among prosthesis users was, respectively, 44.8 ± 10.6, 7.6 ± 2.2, and 7.6 ± 2.2. There were no observed differences in mobility (F_5,330 = 1.52, P = 0.18), QoL (F_5,333 = 0.78, P = 0.57), or PEQ-WB (F_5,335 = 1.618, P = 0.155) between any groups. For Sat, there was a group difference (F_5,334 = 2.44, P = 0.03) as individuals appear to experience an initial increase in Sat with receipt of a prosthesis (0–3 months) compared with 25 to 36 months (P = 0.005), 49 to 60 months (P = 0.008), and 61 to 84 months (P = 0.009).

Conclusions

Those individuals with amputation secondary to dysvascular disease and diabetes who continue to participate in prosthetic rehabilitation appear to experience levels of mobility, Sat, and QoL 7 years after amputation comparable to that reported in the first 6 months postamputation. There may be a modest increase in Sat with receipt of an initial prosthesis, potentially due to an increased optimism for one's situation. Notably, the mobility levels observed in the dysvascular population through a range of long-term postamputation periods remain within a single standard deviation of the population mean for individuals with a lower-limb amputation using a prosthesis for mobility.

Major lower extremity amputation: a contemporary analysis from an academic tertiary referral centre in a developing community

Background

We aimed to explore the surgical outcomes of major lower extremity amputation (MLEA) and influencing factors at an academic tertiary referral centre in north Jordan, optimistically providing a platform for future health care policies and initiatives to improve the outcomes of MLEA in Jordan.

Methods

Clinical records of patients who had undergone MLEA between January 2012 and December 2017 were identified and retrospectively reviewed. International Classification of Diseases codes were used to identify the study cohort from a prospectively maintained computerised database. We included adult patients of both genders who underwent amputations for ischemic lower limb (acute and chronic) and diabetic foot syndrome (DFS). We excluded patients for whom MLEA surgery was performed for other indications (trauma and tumors). Outcomes of interest included patient demographics and comorbidities, type of amputation and indications, length of hospital stay (LOS), the need for revision surgery (ipsilateral conversion to a higher level of amputation), and cumulative mortality rate at 1 year. The impact of the operating surgeon’s specialty (vascular vs. non-vascular surgeon) on outcomes was evaluated.

Results

The study cohort comprised 140 patients who underwent MLEA (110 below-knee amputations [BKA] and 30 above-knee amputations [AKA]; ratio: 3:1; 86 men; 54 women; mean age, 62.9 ± 1.1 years). Comorbidities included diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidaemia, ischaemic heart disease, congestive heart failure, chronic kidney disease, stroke, and Buerger disease. The only associated comorbidity was chronic kidney disease, which was more prevalent among BKA patients (p = 0.047). Indications for MLEA included DFS, and lower limb ischaemia. Acute limb ischaemia was more likely to be an indication for AKA (p = 0.006). LOS was considerably longer for AKA (p = 0.035). The cumulative mortality rate at 1 year was 30.7%. Revision surgery rates and LOS improved significantly with increased rate of vascular surgeon-led MLEA.

Conclusions

In developing countries, the adverse impact of MLEA is increased because of limited resources and increased prevalence of diabetes-related foot complications. Vascular surgeon-led MLEA is associated with decreased revision rates, LOS and possibly improved outcomes, particularly when it is performed for vascular insufficiency. It is important to formulate national health care policies to improve patient outcomes in these countries.

Time Trends in the Incidence of Long-Term Mortality in T2DM Patients Who Have Undergone a Lower Extremity Amputation. Results of a Descriptive and Retrospective Cohort Study

(1) Background: The aims of this study were to examine the incidence of lower extremity amputations (LEAs) among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and to compare the mortality risk of diabetic individuals who underwent LEA with age and sex-matched diabetic individuals without LEA. (2) Methods: We performed a descriptive observational study to assess the trend in the incidence of LEA and a retrospective cohort study to evaluate whether undergoing LEA is a risk factor for long-term mortality among T2DM patients. Data were obtained from the Hospital Discharge Database for the Autonomous Community of Madrid, Spain (2006–2015). (3) Results: The incidence rates of major below-knee and above-knee amputations decreased significantly from 24.9 to 17.1 and from 63.9 to 48.2 per 100000 T2DM individuals from 2006 to 2015, respectively. However, the incidence of minor LEAs increased over time. Mortality was significantly higher among T2DM patients who underwent LEA compared with those who did not undergo this procedure (HR 1.75; 95% CI 1.65–1.87). Male sex, older age, and comorbidity were independently associated with higher mortality after LEA. (4) Conclusions: Undergoing a LEA is a significant risk factor for long term mortality among T2DM patients, and those who underwent a major above-knee LEAs have the highest risk.

Predicting reamputation risk in patients undergoing lower extremity amputation due to the complications of peripheral artery disease and/or diabetes

BACKGROUND

Patients undergoing amputation of the lower extremity for the complications of peripheral artery disease and/or diabetes are at risk of treatment failure and the need for reamputation at a higher level. The aim of this study was to develop a patient-specific reamputation risk prediction model.

METHODS

Patients with incident unilateral transmetatarsal, transtibial or transfemoral amputation between 2004 and 2014 secondary to diabetes and/or peripheral artery disease, and who survived 12 months after amputation, were identified using Veterans Health Administration databases. Procedure codes and natural language processing were used to define subsequent ipsilateral reamputation at the same or higher level. Stepdown logistic regression was used to develop the prediction model. It was then evaluated for calibration and discrimination by evaluating the goodness of fit, area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) and discrimination slope.

RESULTS

Some 5260 patients were identified, of whom 1283 (24·4 per cent) underwent ipsilateral reamputation in the 12 months after initial amputation. Crude reamputation risks were 40·3, 25·9 and 9·7 per cent in the transmetatarsal, transtibial and transfemoral groups respectively. The final prediction model included 11 predictors (amputation level, sex, smoking, alcohol, rest pain, use of outpatient anticoagulants, diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, white blood cell count, kidney failure and previous revascularization), along with four interaction terms. Evaluation of the prediction characteristics indicated good model calibration with goodness-of-fit testing, good discrimination (AUC 0·72) and a discrimination slope of 11·2 per cent.

CONCLUSION

A prediction model was developed to calculate individual risk of primary healing failure and the need for reamputation surgery at each amputation level. This model may assist clinical decision-making regarding amputation-level selection.

Mortality prediction following non-traumatic amputation of the lower extremity

BACKGROUND

Patients who undergo lower extremity amputation secondary to the complications of diabetes or peripheral artery disease have poor long-term survival. Providing patients and surgeons with individual-patient, rather than population, survival estimates provides them with important information to make individualized treatment decisions.

METHODS

Patients with peripheral artery disease and/or diabetes undergoing their first unilateral transmetatarsal, transtibial or transfemoral amputation were identified in the Veterans Affairs Surgical Quality Improvement Program (VASQIP) database. Stepdown logistic regression was used to develop a 1-year mortality risk prediction model from a list of 33 candidate predictors using data from three of five Department of Veterans Affairs national geographical regions. External geographical validation was performed using data from the remaining two regions. Calibration and discrimination were assessed in the development and validation samples.

RESULTS

The development sample included 5028 patients and the validation sample 2140. The final mortality prediction model (AMPREDICT-Mortality) included amputation level, age, BMI, race, functional status, congestive heart failure, dialysis, blood urea nitrogen level, and white blood cell and platelet counts. The model fit in the validation sample was good. The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for the validation sample was 0·76 and Cox calibration regression indicated excellent calibration (slope 0·96, 95 per cent c.i. 0·85 to 1·06; intercept 0·02, 95 per cent c.i. -0·12 to 0·17). Given the external validation characteristics, the development and validation samples were combined, giving a total sample of 7168.

CONCLUSION

The AMPREDICT-Mortality prediction model is a validated parsimonious model that can be used to inform the 1-year mortality risk following non-traumatic lower extremity amputation of patients with peripheral artery disease or diabetes.

Differentiating Lower Extremity Wounds: Arterial, Venous, Neurotrophic

Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is a currently underdiagnosed and underrecognized vascular disease afflicting up to 200 million people worldwide, with at least 1 million of those suffering from critical limb ischemia (CLI). The 5-year mortality after major amputation for CLI (70%) is twice the average 5-year cancer mortality in the United States, and as many as 50% of CLI patients proceed directly to amputation without preceding vascular assessment or revascularization. Each year, twice as many breast augmentations are performed as leg revascularizations. Strong evidence in the literature supports markedly improved outcomes when multidisciplinary care teams across specialties are engaged to evaluate, treat, and manage patients with lower extremity wounds. This article assists the vascular specialist in differentiating the three most common lower extremity wound types.

Three-Year Morbidity and Mortality Rates After Nontraumatic Transmetatarsal Amputation

Patients requiring a nontraumatic transmetatarsal amputation (TMA) typically have multiple comorbidities that place them at high risk of postoperative complications and additional surgery. The present study identified the demographic, clinical, and surgical risk factors that predict complications after a nontraumatic TMA, including the incidence of 3-year mortality, proximal limb amputation, and lack of healing. The electronic medical records of patients who had undergone TMA within a Kaiser Permanente Northern California facility from March 2007 to January 2012 (n = 375) were reviewed. We used bivariate and multivariate analyses to examine the variations in the rates of TMA complications according to sex, age, race, and comorbid conditions, including nonpalpable pedal pulses, end-stage renal disease, coronary artery disease, hypertension, smoking status, and preoperative albumin <3.5 mg/dL. After a nontraumatic TMA, 136 (36.3%) patients had died within 3 years, 138 (36.8%) had required a more proximal limb amputation, and 83 (22.1%) had healed without complications. The patients with nonpalpable pedal pulses had 3 times the odds of requiring a proximal limb amputation (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 3.07; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.84 to 5.11), almost twice the odds of dying within 3 years (aOR 1.70; 95% CI 0.98 to 2.93), and >2 times the odds of not healing after the TMA (aOR 2.45; 95% CI 1.40 to 4.31). The patients with end-stage renal disease had 3 times the odds of dying within 3 years (aOR 3.10; 95% CI 1.69 to 5.70). The present findings can help us identify patients with an increased risk of postoperative complications after nontraumatic TMA, including patients with nonpalpable pedal pulses or end-stage renal disease, and suggest the vulnerability of this patient population.

Increased mortality among patients with diabetes following first-ever transfemoral amputation

AIMS

Transfemoral amputation (TFA) is associated with a high postoperative mortality though it is unclear whether diabetes is associated with an increased mortality or not. The aim was to examine mortality at 1 week and 1 year after first-ever TFA with special reference to diabetes.

METHODS

We included 162 first-ever TFAs from 1996 to 2012. Mortality data were collected with the use of the Swedish personal identification number.

RESULTS

The median age was 85 years. Diabetes mellitus were present in 19% (n = 30) of the patients and 67% (n = 109) had cardiovascular disease. Mortality was significantly higher for patients with diabetes compared to patients without diabetes at 1 week (30% vs. 8%, p = 0.001) and at 1 year (80% vs. 57%, p = 0.02). This difference was significant in multivariable analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that postoperative mortality was high. The high mortality rate emphasizes the need for early and adequate evaluation of every patient́s overall condition and whether amputation is beneficial or not. Although further studies are needed to analyze the specific causes of early death in amputees and we suggest close monitoring of blood-sugar in patients with diabetes and early treatment of infections and cardiac events in all patients.

Risk Factors for In-hospital Mortality and Reamputation Following Lower Limb Amputation

Objective

Studies on the outcomes of lower limb amputation have been limited by the use of selected study populations and small sample sizes. Although reamputation is an important outcome following lower limb amputation, the risk factors for reamputation remain to be elucidated. The present study was performed to identify risk factors for in-hospital death and reamputation following lower limb amputation.

Methods

Using a national inpatient database in Japan, we identified 13,774 patients who underwent lower limb amputation. We examined the patients' backgrounds and employed a multivariable logistic regression analysis to identify factors associated with in-hospital death or reamputation.

Results

The average age of the 13,774 patients was 72.4 years, and 63.1% (n=8694) were male. The overall in-hospital mortality rate was 10.8% (1481/13,774). The reamputation rate was 10.1% (782/7779) for patients who initially underwent foot or transtibial amputation (18.2% [391/2148] for foot amputations and 6.9% [391/5631] for transtibial amputations). Multivariable logistic regression analysis revealed higher age, male sex, peripheral vascular disease, use of insulin, hemodialysis, and higher numbers of comorbidities as significant risk factors for reamputation or in-hospital death. Use of hemodialysis was the strongest risk factor (odds ratio, 2.10; 95% confidence interval, 1.87-2.35).

Conclusions

The in-hospital mortality and reamputation rates following lower limb amputation were considerably high, reflecting the severely ill conditions of patients with advanced chronic diseases. Risk factors for in-hospital death and reamputation following lower limb amputation were identified. These should aid surgeons in determining a patient's risk of a poor outcome and deciding on the level of amputation.

Mortality after major amputation in elderly patients with critical limb ischemia

Background

Owing to the aging population, the number of elderly patients with critical limb ischemia (CLI) has increased. The consequence of amputation is immense. However, at the moment, information about the mortality after amputation in the elderly vascular patients is unknown. For this reason, this study evaluated mortality rates and patient-related factors associated with mortality after a major amputation in elderly patients with CLI.

Methods

From 2006 to 2013, we included patients aged >70 years who were treated for chronic CLI by primary or secondary major amputation within or after 3 months of initial therapy (revascularization or conservative management). Outcome measurements were mortality after major amputation and factors associated with mortality (age, comorbidity and timing of amputation).

Results

In total, 168/651 patients (178 legs; 26%) underwent a major amputation. Patients were stratified by age: 70–80 years (n=86) and >80 years (n=82). Overall mortality after major amputation was 44%, 66% and 85% after 1, 3 and 5 years, respectively. The 6-month and 1-year mortality in patients aged 80 years or older was, respectively, 59% or 63% after a secondary amputation <3 months versus 34% and 44% after a secondary amputation >3 months. Per year of age, the mortality rate increased by 4% (P=0.005). No significant difference in mortality after major amputation was found in the presence of comorbidity or according to Rutherford classification.

Conclusion

Despite developments in the treatment of CLI by revascularization, amputation rates remain high and are associated with tremendous mortality rates. Secondary amputation after a failed attempt of revascularization causes a higher mortality. Further research concerning timing of amputation and patient-related outcome is needed to evaluate if selected patients might benefit from primary amputation.

General outcomes and risk factors for minor and major amputations in Brazil

Objectives Major and minor amputations are associated with significant rates of mortality. However, little is known about the impact of unplanned redo-amputation during the same hospitalization on outcomes. The objectives of this study were to identify the risk factors associated with in-hospital mortality after both major and minor amputations as well as the results of unplanned redo-amputation on outcome. Methods Retrospective study of 342 consecutive patients who were treated with lower extremity amputation in Brazil between January 2013 and October 2014. Results The in-hospital mortality rate was higher in major compared to minor amputation (25.6% vs. 4.1%; p < 0.0001). Whereas chronic kidney disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and planned staged amputation predicted in-hospital mortality after major amputation, age, and congestive heart failure predicted mortality after minor amputation. The white blood cell count predicted in-hospital mortality following both major and minor amputation. However, postoperative infection predicted in-hospital mortality only following major amputation. Conclusions In-hospital mortality was high after major amputations. Unplanned redo-amputation was not a predictor of in-hospital mortality after major or minor amputation. Planned staged amputation was associated with reduced survival after major but not minor amputation. Postoperative infection predicted mortality after major amputation. Systemic diseases and postoperative white blood cell were associated with in-hospital mortality. This study suggests a possible link between a pro-inflammatory state and increased in-hospital mortality following amputation.

On neuromechanical approaches for the study of biological and robotic grasp and manipulation

Biological and robotic grasp and manipulation are undeniably similar at the level of mechanical task performance. However, their underlying fundamental biological vs. engineering mechanisms are, by definition, dramatically different and can even be antithetical. Even our approach to each is diametrically opposite: inductive science for the study of biological systems vs. engineering synthesis for the design and construction of robotic systems. The past 20 years have seen several conceptual advances in both fields and the quest to unify them. Chief among them is the reluctant recognition that their underlying fundamental mechanisms may actually share limited common ground, while exhibiting many fundamental differences. This recognition is particularly liberating because it allows us to resolve and move beyond multiple paradoxes and contradictions that arose from the initial reasonable assumption of a large common ground. Here, we begin by introducing the perspective of neuromechanics, which emphasizes that real-world behavior emerges from the intimate interactions among the physical structure of the system, the mechanical requirements of a task, the feasible neural control actions to produce it, and the ability of the neuromuscular system to adapt through interactions with the environment. This allows us to articulate a succinct overview of a few salient conceptual paradoxes and contradictions regarding under-determined vs. over-determined mechanics, under- vs. over-actuated control, prescribed vs. emergent function, learning vs. implementation vs. adaptation, prescriptive vs. descriptive synergies, and optimal vs. habitual performance. We conclude by presenting open questions and suggesting directions for future research. We hope this frank and open-minded assessment of the state-of-the-art will encourage and guide these communities to continue to interact and make progress in these important areas at the interface of neuromechanics, neuroscience, rehabilitation and robotics.

Endovascular Aortoiliac Revascularization in a Patient with Spinal Cord Injury and Hip Contracture

Treatment of chronic peripheral ischemic wounds in patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) can be technically challenging, especially if they have significant hip contracture. This article describes the endovascular aortoiliac revascularization of a paraplegic patient with hip contracture and a hostile abdomen. It also reviews the particularity of the peripheral arterial system in SCI patients.

Risk factors for wound complications and 30-day mortality after major lower limb amputations in patients with peripheral arterial disease

Purpose Risk factors for wound complications or 30-day mortality after major amputation in patients with peripheral arterial disease remain unclear. We investigated the outcomes of major amputation in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Methods Patients who underwent major amputation from 2008 to 2015 were retrospectively analyzed. The main outcome measures were risk factors for wound complications and 30-day mortality after major lower limb amputations. Major amputation was defined as above-knee amputation or below-knee amputation. Wound complications were defined as surgical site infection or wound dehiscence. Results In total, 106 consecutive patients underwent major amputation. The average age was 77.3 ± 11.2 years, 67.9% of patients had diabetes mellitus and 35.8% were undergoing hemodialysis. Patients who underwent primary amputation constituted 61.9% of the cohort, and the proportions of above-knee amputation and below-knee amputation were 66.9% and 33.1%, respectively. The wound complication rate was 13.3% overall, 10.3% in above-knee amputation, and 19.5% in below-knee amputation. Multivariate analysis showed that the risk factors for wound complications were female sex (hazard ratio, 4.66; 95% confidence interval, 1.40-17.3; P = 0.01) and below-knee amputation (hazard ratio, 4.36; 95% confidence interval, 1.20-17.6; P = 0.03). The 30-day mortality rate was 7.6%, pneumonia comprised the most frequent cause of 30-day mortality, followed by sepsis and cardiac death. Multivariate analysis showed that a low serum albumin concentration (hazard ratio, 3.87; 95% confidence interval, 1.12-16.3; P = 0.03) was a risk factor for 30-day mortality. Conclusions Female sex and below-knee amputation were risk factors for wound complications. A low serum albumin concentration was a risk factor for 30-day mortality after major amputation in Japanese patients with peripheral arterial disease.

Podiatry impact on high-low amputation ratio characteristics: A 16-year retrospective study

PURPOSE

Complications from diabetes mellitus including major lower extremity amputation may have significant impact on a patient's mortality. This study determined what impact the addition of a limb salvage and diabetic foot program involving podiatry had at an academic institution over 16years by analyzing high-low amputation ratio data.

METHODS

The high-low amputation ratio in the diabetic population who underwent non-traumatic amputation of the lower extremity was retrospectively evaluated at an academic institution via cohort discovery of the electronic medical record and analysis of billing over 16years.

RESULTS

We directly compared two eras, one without podiatry and one with a podiatry presence. It was found that with the addition of a podiatry program, limb salvage rates significantly increased (R² (without podiatry)=0.45, R² (with podiatry)=0.26), with a significant change in both the rate of limb salvage per year (-0.11% per year versus -0.36% per year; p<0.01) and an overall decrease in high-low amputation ratio (0.89 without podiatry to 0.60 with podiatry). Of note, approximately 40 major lower extremity amputations were avoided per year with the addition of a podiatry program (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings signify the importance of podiatric care in the diabetic population. With an established podiatry program present at an academic institution, major lower extremity amputations can be avoided and more limbs can be salvaged, thus preventing some of the moribund complications from this condition.

The Type of Anesthesia Technique Does Not Have an Impact on 30-Day Mortality in Geriatric Patients Undergoing Lower Extremity Amputation

This study aimed to determine the appropriate anesthetic technique for patients who underwent amputation due to peripheral vascular disease. The anesthetic technique to be applied during lower extremity amputations in geriatric patients with limited functional capacity may be important in terms of clinical outcomes and mortality rates. Patients aged older than 65 years who had undergone major lower extremity amputation were retrospectively evaluated. The patients were divided into 2 groups: regional anesthesia (RA) and general anesthesia (GA). Demographic characteristics, comorbidities, medications used, anesthesia technique, the durations of anesthesia and surgery, need for blood transfusion, 30-day mortality, postoperative cardiac and pulmonary complication rates were recorded from the medical records of the patients. Among the 441 patients, 244 had received RA, while 197 had received GA. The average length of stay in the hospital was longer in the GA group (P = 0.001). The use of antiplatelet drugs (P = 0.001) and the number of transfusions were higher (P = 0.045) in the GA group. No significant difference was found between the groups in terms of mortality and postoperative cardiac or pulmonary complication rates. We determined that the anesthesia technique does not have an effect on 30-day mortality and complication rates. The regional anesthesia technique may be preferred in geriatric patients who will undergo major lower extremity amputation because of the shorter hospital stay and theoretical advantages. However, considering the general functional status of patients, the importance of patient-based evaluation should not be forgotten.

Predictors of in-hospital mortality following major lower extremity amputations in type 2 diabetic patients using artificial neural networks

BACKGROUND

Outcome prediction is important in the clinical decision-making process. Artificial neural networks (ANN) have been used to predict the risk of post-operative events, including survival, and are increasingly being used in complex medical decision making. We aimed to use ANN analysis to estimate predictive factors of in-hospital mortality (IHM) in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) after major lower extremity amputation (LEA) in Spain.

METHODS

We design a retrospective, observational study using ANN models. We used the Spanish National Hospital Discharge Database to select all hospital admissions of major LEA procedure in T2DM patients.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Predictors of IHM using 4 ANN models: i) with all discharge diagnosis included in the database; ii) with all discharge diagnosis included in the database, excluding infectious diseases; iii) comorbidities included in the Charlson Comorbidities Index; iv) comorbidities included in the Elixhauser Comorbidity Index.

RESULTS

From 2003 to 2013, 40,857 major LEAs in patients with T2DM were identified with a 10.0% IHM. We found that Elixhauser Comorbidity Index model performed better in terms of sensitivity, specificity and precision than Charlson Comorbidity Index model (0.7634 vs 0.7444; 0.9602 vs 0.9121; 0.9511 vs 0.888, respectively). The area under the ROC curve for Elixhauser comorbidity model was 91.7% (95% CI 90.3-93.0) and for Charlson comorbidity model was 88.9% (95% CI; 87.590.2) p = 0.043. Models including all discharge diagnosis with and without infectious diseases showed worse results. In the Elixhauser Comorbidity Index model the most sensitive parameter was age (variable sensitive ratio [VSR] 1.451) followed by female sex (VSR 1.433), congestive heart failure (VSR 1.341), renal failure (VSR 1.274) and chronic pulmonary disease (VSR 1.266).

CONCLUSIONS

Elixhauser Comorbidity Index is a superior comorbidity risk-adjustment model for major LEA survival prediction in patients with T2DM than Charlson Comorbidity Index model using ANN models. Female sex, congestive heart failure, and renal failure are strong predictors of mortality in these patients.

Impact of rehabilitation programs on dependency and functional performance of patients with major lower limb amputations. A retrospective chart review in western Saudi Arabia

Objectives:

To determine pattern and impact of physical rehabilitation on dependency and functional performance of patients.

Methods:

This retrospective chart review was carried out between July and August 2012 at King Abdulaziz Medical City, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Data were collected using demographic, clinical, and dependency assessment checklists.

Results:

Patients who underwent major lower limb amputations between January 2007 and April 2012 (n=121) were included in the study. There were 84 (69.4%) male and 37 (30.6%) female patients with a mean ± standard deviation of 63.3±17.4 years old. Diabetes mellitus was the most frequent cause in 63.6% of patients. Only one-third of the amputees (32.2%) have records of completion of their rehabilitation programs, although 20.7% of them completed the <50% of the scheduled rehabilitation sessions, 17.2% attended between 50% and 80%, and the remaining 62.1% attended more than 80% of the scheduled sessions. Muscle power scores in each side of the upper and lower limbs were significantly better following rehabilitation (p<0.0001). Basic functions of mobility and transfer have also significantly improved (p<0.05).

Conclusions:

Overall dependency and functional performance were significantly better following implementation of the physical rehabilitation programs. A multidisciplinary team approach is mandatory to improve compliance of patients toward the rehabilitation programs.