Assessing the chemical landscape of the Galápagos Marine Reserve

The Galápagos Archipelago is at the forefront of the Anthropocene, facing intensifying pressures from its growing human footprint and accelerated global connectivity. Despite this, little is currently known of its chemical landscape. This review critically examines the drivers, sources, distribution and fate of oil, plastics, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals in the Galápagos Marine Reserve, identifying pollutant hotspots and evaluating rapid assessment methods and sentinel species that could aid regional monitoring. The cumulative influence of the Galápagos' equatorial position amongst major (and seasonally variable) atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns, along with its distinctive geophysical and environmental conditions, such as extreme UV radiation and precipitation, likely exacerbates the archipelagos susceptibility to chemicals from both local and continental inputs. Point and diffuse sources identified include wastewater/effluent discharge, agricultural run-off, mismanaged waste, recreational boating, commercial shipping and industrial fishing. Limited spatiotemporal monitoring has hindered the identification of pollution hotspots, except for harbours as aggregates for maritime activities and urban run-off, and eastern-facing coastlines exposed to the Humboldt Current as plastic accumulation zones. Furthermore, the remote nature and vital protected status of the Galápagos National Park has constrained comprehensive assessment of chemical toxicity and its impacts on marine species across the reserve, with studies primarily restricted to Galápagos pinnipeds. Thus, there is currently insufficient knowledge to determine the extent to which the widespread but sporadic presence of chemical contaminants threatens the resilience and adaptive capacity of Galápagos' complex ecosystems, unique biodiversity and interconnected environmental processes. Future efforts are recommended to strengthen environmental monitoring and chemical risk assessment through the utilisation of rapid assessment tools and regional sentinel species, enhancing fundamental understanding of the chemical landscape in this global conservation Hope Spot, as well as the wider implications of the Anthropocene on diverse, dynamic and remote island ecosystems.

Morphologic Differentiation of the Exotic Parasitoid Eupelmus pulchriceps (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae) in the Galapagos Archipelago

The historical and geographical properties of the archipelagos allow a detailed study of species diversification, and phenotypic traits can indicate the extent of such processes. Eupelmus pulchriceps (Cameron, 1904) is an exotic species to the Galapagos archipelago, and generalist parasitoid that attacks a beetle species that consumes the seeds of the invasive shrub Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. Despite extensive sampling, the wasp is recorded only in Santa Cruz and San Cristobal islands of the Galapagos archipelago. Thus, using 112 female wasps, we compare body size, proportion, and allometric differentiations within and between the two islands. There were no body size differences between islands. A PerMANOVA indicates differences between the islands and a single differentiation between two localities of one island. Allometric differences between islands were not the same for all structures. These results are consistent with the greater distance between islands than between localities and suggest a differentiation process. The variables with allometric differentiation are associated with wings and ovipositor, possibly responding to different ecological pressures. It is interesting that this parasitoid, recently arrived at the archipelago, is already showing differentiation. Also, it is essential to monitor the behavior of these wasps in the archipelago, given their potential to access other species affecting the trophic interactions of the local biota.

Development of Antifouling Strategies for Marine Applications

Marine biofouling is an undeniable challenge for aquatic systems since it is responsible for several environmental and ecological problems and economic losses. Several strategies have been developed to mitigate fouling-related issues in marine environments, including developing marine coatings using nanotechnology and biomimetic models, and incorporating natural compounds, peptides, bacteriophages, or specific enzymes on surfaces. The advantages and limitations of these strategies are discussed in this review, and the development of novel surfaces and coatings is highlighted. The performance of these novel antibiofilm coatings is currently tested by in vitro experiments, which should try to mimic real conditions in the best way, and/or by in situ tests through the immersion of surfaces in marine environments. Both forms present their advantages and limitations, and these factors should be considered when the performance of a novel marine coating requires evaluation and validation. Despite all the advances and improvements against marine biofouling, progress toward an ideal operational strategy has been slow given the increasingly demanding regulatory requirements. Recent developments in self-polishing copolymers and fouling-release coatings have yielded promising results which set the basis for the development of more efficient and eco-friendly antifouling strategies.

Identifying Shared Strategies and Solutions to the Human–Giant Tortoise Interactions in Santa Cruz, Galapagos: A Nominal Group Technique Application

Conservation conflicts in protected areas are varied and context-specific, but the resulting effects are often similar, leading to important losses for both humans and wildlife. Several methods and approaches have been used to mitigate conservation conflicts, with an increasing emphasis on understanding the human–human dimension of the conflict. In this article, we present a revision of several conservation conflict cases in the management of protected areas, transdisciplinary and participatory approaches to address conservation conflicts, and finalize by illustrating the application of the nominal group technique (NGT) with the case of the human–giant tortoise interactions in Santa Cruz Island, Galapagos. In this article, we demonstrate the use of novel and systematic participatory and deliberative methodology that is able to engage stakeholders in a constructive dialogue to jointly identify and explore options for shared strategies and solutions to conservation conflicts. The results are comparable with other conservation conflicts cases around the world and illustrate the importance of generating legitimatized information that will further help policy and decision-making actions to address conservation conflicts in the management of protected areas.

State of corals and coral reefs of the Galápagos Islands (Ecuador): Past, present and future

Coral populations and structural coral reefs have undergone severe reductions and losses respectively over large parts of the Galápagos Islands during and following the 1982-83 El Niño event. Coral tissue loss amounted to 95% across the Archipelago. Also at that time, all coral reefs in the central and southern islands disappeared following severe degradation and eventual collapse due primarily to intense bioerosion and low recruitment. Six sites in the southern islands have demonstrated low to moderate coral community (scattered colonies, but no carbonate framework) recovery. The iconic pocilloporid reef at Devil's Crown (Floreana Island) experienced recovery to 2007, then severe mortality during a La Niña cooling event, and is again (as of 2017) undergoing rapid recovery. Notable recovery has occurred at the central (Marchena) and northern islands (Darwin and Wolf). Of the 17 structural reefs first observed in the mid-1970s, the single surviving reef (Wellington Reef) at Darwin Island remains in a positive growth mode. The remainder either degraded to a coral community or was lost. Retrospective analyses of the age structure of corals killed in 1983, and isotopic signatures of the skeletal growth record of massive corals suggest the occurrence of robust coral populations during at least a 500-year period before 1983. The greatest potential threats to the recovery and persistence of coral reefs include: ocean warming and acidification, bioerosion, coral diseases, human population growth (increasing numbers of residents and tourists), overfishing, invasive species, pollution, and habitat destruction. Such a diverse spectrum of disturbances, acting alone or in combination, are expected to continue to cause local and archipelago-wide mortality and degradation of the coral reef ecosystem.

Alien species pathways to the Galapagos Islands, Ecuador

Alien species, one of the biggest threats to natural ecosystems worldwide, are of particular concern for oceanic archipelagos such as Galápagos. To enable more effective management of alien species, we reviewed, collated and analysed all available records of alien species for Galápagos. We also assembled a comprehensive dataset on pathways to and among the Galápagos Islands, including tourist and resident numbers, tourist vessels, their itineraries and visitation sites, aircraft capacity and occupancy, air and sea cargo and biosecurity interceptions. So far, 1,579 alien terrestrial and marine species have been introduced to Galápagos by humans. Of these, 1,476 have become established. Almost half of these were intentional introductions, mostly of plants. Most unintentional introductions arrived on plants and plant associated material, followed by transport vehicles, and commodities (in particular fruit and vegetables). The number, frequency and geographic origin of pathways for the arrival and dispersal of alien species to and within Galápagos have increased over time, tracking closely the increase in human population (residents and tourists) on the islands. Intentional introductions of alien species should decline as biosecurity is strengthened but there is a danger that unintentional introductions will increase further as tourism on Galápagos expands. This unique world heritage site will only retain its biodiversity values if the pathways for invasion are managed effectively.