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Elliott T, Truong C, Jackson S, Zúñiga C, Trappe J, Vernes K. Mammalian Mycophagy: a Global Review of Ecosystem Interactions Between Mammals and Fungi. Fungal Syst Evol 2022; 9:99-159. [PMID: 36072820 PMCID: PMC9402283 DOI: 10.3114/fuse.2022.09.07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
The consumption of fungi by animals is a significant trophic interaction in most terrestrial ecosystems, yet the role mammals play in these associations has been incompletely studied. In this review, we compile 1 154 references published over the last 146 years and provide the first
comprehensive global review of mammal species known to eat fungi (508 species in 15 orders). We review experimental studies that found viable fungal inoculum in the scats of at least 40 mammal species, including spores from at least 58 mycorrhizal fungal species that remained viable after
ingestion by mammals. We provide a summary of mammal behaviours relating to the consumption of fungi, the nutritional importance of fungi for mammals, and the role of mammals in fungal spore dispersal. We also provide evidence to suggest that the morphological evolution of sequestrate fungal
sporocarps (fruiting bodies) has likely been driven in part by the dispersal advantages provided by mammals. Finally, we demonstrate how these interconnected associations are widespread globally and have far-reaching ecological implications for mammals, fungi and associated plants in most
terrestrial ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- T.F. Elliott
- Ecosystem Management, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia
| | - C. Truong
- Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria, Birdwood Ave, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia
| | - S.M. Jackson
- Australian Museum Research Institute, Australian Museum, 1 William St., Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - C.L. Zúñiga
- Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Tercer Circuito s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, 04510 Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - J.M. Trappe
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA
| | - K. Vernes
- Ecosystem Management, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia
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Lucchesi S, Cheng L, Wessling EG, Kambale B, Lokasola AL, Ortmann S, Surbeck M. Importance of subterranean fungi in the diet of bonobos in Kokolopori. Am J Primatol 2021; 83:e23308. [PMID: 34312901 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Nonstaple food is a food resource which sole consumption does not allow the maintenance of regular physiological functions, thus constituting a minor portion of an individual's diet. Many primates consume nonstaple food such as meat, insects, and fungi. Hypotheses on the dietary importance of nonstaple food include its role as fallback food and as source of specific nutrients. We tested these two hypotheses by investigating mycophagy (i.e., the consumption of fungi) in a population of wild bonobos in the Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve, DRC. Specifically, we examined the relationship between fungus consumption and various factors relevant to bonobo feeding ecology (i.e., fruit abundance and the consumption of other food types). Additionally, we measured the deviation from linear travel when bonobos searched for fungi to evaluate the nature of fungus consumption (e.g., opportunistic or targeted). Lastly, we examined the nutritional content of the major fungus species consumed (Hysterangium bonobo) to test whether this food item was potentially consumed as source of specific nutrients. We found that bonobos spent a higher proportion of their time feeding on fungi when fruit abundance was higher, indicating that fungi were not consumed as a fallback food. Moreover, bonobos deviated from linear travel when visiting fungus patches more than observed when visiting fruit patches, suggesting that they actively sought out fungi. Lastly, initial analyses suggest that H. bonobo samples contained high concentration of sodium. Collectively, these results suggest that subterranean fungi appear to be attractive food source to Kokolopori bonobos, and that mycophagy may serve to supplement nutrients, like sodium, in bonobo diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Lucchesi
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Leveda Cheng
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Erin G Wessling
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Bienfait Kambale
- Centre de Surveillance de la Biodiversité de l'Université de Kisangani, Kisangani, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Albert L Lokasola
- Vie Sauvage, Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve, Province Equateur, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Sylvia Ortmann
- Leibniz-Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Surbeck
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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Zosky KL, Wayne AF, Bryant KA, Calver MC, Scarff FR. Diet of the critically endangered woylie (Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi) in south-western Australia. AUST J ZOOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1071/zo17080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
To assist the management of the critically endangered woylie (Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi), a quantitative study of its diet was conducted across five of the larger subpopulations in south-western Australia. There was a close match between dietary composition established from foregut contents and faecal pellets. Woylies were predominantly mycophagous in all subpopulations, but consumed a broad diet including invertebrates, seeds and other plant material. Individuals in a high-density, fenced subpopulation ate significantly less fungi than free-ranging animals from lower-density subpopulations. Dietary composition did not vary significantly amongst subpopulations in the Upper Warren region, where a range of population densities was observed. Altogether, 79 fungal spore classes were identified, including at least 15 genera from 14 families. Sampling across one year showed that fungi made up a larger fraction of the diet in autumn or winter, and greater diversities of fungi were consumed at these times than at other times of year. This information is essential to provide valuable ecological context for effective population management of woylies, as well as identification and conservation of important habitats.
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Schwartz CC, Fortin JK, Teisberg JE, Haroldson MA, Servheen C, Robbins CT, Van Manen FT. Body and diet composition of sympatric black and grizzly bears in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. J Wildl Manage 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Charles C. Schwartz
- U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center; Interagency Grizzly Bear Study Team; 2327 University Way, Suite 2 Bozeman MT 59715 USA
| | - Jennifer K. Fortin
- School of Biological Sciences; Washington State University; P.O. Box 644236 Pullman WA 99164 USA
| | - Justin E. Teisberg
- School of Biological Sciences; Washington State University; P.O. Box 644236 Pullman WA 99164 USA
| | - Mark A. Haroldson
- U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center; Interagency Grizzly Bear Study Team; 2327 University Way, Suite 2 Bozeman MT 59715 USA
| | | | - Charles T. Robbins
- Schools of the Environment and Biological Sciences; Washington State University; P.O. Box 644236 Pullman WA 99164 USA
| | - Frank T. Van Manen
- U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center; Interagency Grizzly Bear Study Team; 2327 University Way, Suite 2 Bozeman MT 59715 USA
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Fortin JK, Schwartz CC, Gunther KA, Teisberg JE, Haroldson MA, Evans MA, Robbins CT. Dietary adjustability of grizzly bears and American black bears in Yellowstone National Park. J Wildl Manage 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Danks MA. Gut-retention time in mycophagous mammals: a review and a study of truffle-like fungal spore retention in the swamp wallaby. FUNGAL ECOL 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2011.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Wallis IR, Claridge AW, Trappe JM. Nitrogen content, amino acid composition and digestibility of fungi from a nutritional perspective in animal mycophagy. Fungal Biol 2012; 116:590-602. [PMID: 22559919 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2012.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2011] [Revised: 02/10/2012] [Accepted: 02/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Fungi comprise a major part of the diet of many animals. Even so, the nutritional value of fungi has been much debated, with some arguing that fungi are nutritionally poor. However, the chemical composition of fungi and of the biology of the animals that eat them are not well understood, particularly in reference to amino acid (AA) composition of fungi and digestibility of fungal protein. We analysed fibre, total nitrogen (N), available N, and AA contents and measured in vitro digestibility of a wide range of epigeous and hypogeous fungi collected in Australia and the USA to test three hypotheses: (i) fungi are nutritionally poor because they contain few nutrients or are otherwise of low digestibility, (ii) fungi vary substantially in their nutritional composition; and (iii) animals can counter this variable quality by eating diverse taxa. Resultant data indicate many fungi are a reasonable source of AAs and digestible nitrogen. However, they vary highly between species in AA content, and the protein has a poor balance of digestible AAs. This helps explain why many mycophagous animals eat a wide array of fungi and often have digestive strategies to cope with fungi, such as foregut fermentation. Another common strategy is to supplement the diet with high quality protein, such as insect protein. Accordingly, evaluating nutritional value of fungi requires consideration of physiology of the animal species and their whole diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian R Wallis
- Ecology, Evolution and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
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Why Feed on Fungi? The Nutritional Content of Sporocarps Consumed by Buffy-Headed Marmosets, Callithrix flaviceps (Primates: Callitrichidae), in Southeastern Brazil. J Chem Ecol 2011; 37:145-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s10886-011-9911-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2010] [Revised: 01/12/2011] [Accepted: 01/16/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Flaherty EA, Ben-David M, Smith WP. Diet and food availability: implications for foraging and dispersal of Prince of Wales northern flying squirrels across managed landscapes. J Mammal 2010. [DOI: 10.1644/09-mamm-a-014r.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Ball T, Adams E, Goldingay RL. Diet of the squirrel glider in a fragmented landscape near Mackay, central Queensland. AUST J ZOOL 2009. [DOI: 10.1071/zo08095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the diet of the squirrel glider (Petaurus norfolcensis) from within a highly fragmented landscape in the northern (tropical) part of its geographic range where information was absent. We analysed 86 faecal samples of 53 gliders from 11 locations and obtained 97 observations of 10 gliders feeding at two locations. Pollen of Eucalyptus/Corymbia was present in 70% and Melaleuca in 20% of faecal samples. Indicators of sap feeding were present in 44% of samples and seeds were present in 14% of samples. Invertebrates, mostly moth larvae, were present in 54% of samples. Observations of gliders feeding revealed that the main food types were invertebrates (36% of observations), nectar and pollen (27% of observations) and sap (26% of observations) of five tree species. Differences in the use of the major food types revealed by the two methods of diet analysis partly reflect site-based differences. Qualitatively, the diet was similar to that described in southern Australia, with confirmation that sap may be important at some locations. Our results reveal the contribution that different tree species make to the diet, which should be used to guide habitat restoration for the squirrel glider in this fragmented landscape.
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Leveau JHJ, Preston GM. Bacterial mycophagy: definition and diagnosis of a unique bacterial-fungal interaction. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2008; 177:859-876. [PMID: 18086226 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02325.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
This review analyses the phenomenon of bacterial mycophagy, which we define as a set of phenotypic behaviours that enable bacteria to obtain nutrients from living fungi and thus allow the conversion of fungal into bacterial biomass. We recognize three types of bacterial strategies to derive nutrition from fungi: necrotrophy, extracellular biotrophy and endocellular biotrophy. Each is characterized by a set of uniquely sequential and differently overlapping interactions with the fungal target. We offer a detailed analysis of the nature of these interactions, as well as a comprehensive overview of methodologies for assessing and quantifying their individual contributions to the mycophagy phenotype. Furthermore, we discuss future prospects for the study and exploitation of bacterial mycophagy, including the need for appropriate tools to detect bacterial mycophagy in situ in order to be able to understand, predict and possibly manipulate the way in which mycophagous bacteria affect fungal activity, turnover, and community structure in soils and other ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan H J Leveau
- Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Heteren, the Netherlands
| | - Gail M Preston
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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D'Alva T, Lara C, Estrada-Torres A, Castillo-Guevara C. Digestive responses of two omnivorous rodents (Peromyscus maniculatus and P. alstoni) feeding on epigeous fungus (Russula occidentalis). J Comp Physiol B 2007; 177:707-12. [PMID: 17653726 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-007-0188-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2007] [Revised: 06/26/2007] [Accepted: 06/28/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The sporocarps of hypogeous and epigeous fungi are important dietary items for forest dwelling rodents in temperate and tropical forests throughout the world. However, results of some pioneering works have demonstrated that fungi cannot be considered as nutritionally high-quality food items for some mycophagous small rodents. According to these studies, when mycophagous rodents feed on fungus, they showed a minimal digestibility, but whether this applies to most rodent species that include fungi in their diets is unknown. In this study, we experimentally evaluated body mass changes and feed preferences in captive deer (Peromyscus maniculatus) and volcano (P. alstoni) mice when fed on epigeous fungus (Russula occidentalis). In experiment 1, the animals were fed with fungus as the only feedstuff in comparison to regular rodent chow and oat. In experiment 2, the animals were fed with fungus in a free-choice arrangement together with equal amounts of rodent chow and oat. Both species lost approximately 15% of their body mass within 4 days when fed on fungus alone, but gained 5-10% body mass during the same time period when ingesting oat and rodent chow, respectively, as the only feedstuff. However, in contrast, in the free-choice arrangement with all three feedstuffs, both species gained 20-30% body mass, and showed the highest feed preference for fungus followed by oat and rodent chow. In addition, apparent digestibility of energy and nitrogen were analyzed in both rodent species, which were 50-60% for fungus, whereas approximately 90-94% for rodent chow and oat. According to our results, animals need to supplement their diets with alternative high-quality food items in order to maintain and increase their body mass, suggesting that epigeous fungi are only of moderate nutritional value for small rodents. Futures studies should focus on exploring the importance of a mixture of fungal species in the diet of small mycophagous rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- T D'Alva
- Laboratorio de Ecología del Comportamiento, Centro Tlaxcala de Biología de la Conducta, Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala-UNAM, Tlaxcala, 90070, México
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Noble JC, Hik DS, Sinclair ARE. Landscape ecology of the burrowing bettong: fire and marsupial biocontrol of shrubs in semi-arid Australia. RANGELAND JOURNAL 2007. [DOI: 10.1071/rj06041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Prior to European settlement, medium-sized marsupials, especially bettongs (Bettongia spp.), were widely distributed across arid and semi-arid Australia. Most disappeared rapidly in the late 1800s in the earliest settled rangelands such as the West Darling region of western New South Wales following the spread of domestic herbivores, rabbit invasion, exotic predators and loss of habitat. Because the burrowing bettong (Bettongia lesueur) is the only fossorial macropod species, it left a clearly visible record of its past presence, distribution and habitat preferences in the form of substantial relict warrens, particularly in stony, ‘hard-red’ habitats. With the reduction in fire frequency because of excessive grazing pressures following European settlement in the 19th century, there was a rapid increase in the density of unpalatable native shrubs. We examine the hypothesis that periodic wildfires and browsing by bettongs were together able to regulate shrub densities in semi-arid rangelands in Australia. Information from various sources concerning the effects of fire, rainfall and browsing on the demography of shrubs was used to construct a model of shrub population dynamics. The model indicates the potential for two states for a given bettong density: first, a low shrub density maintained by a combination of periodic fire and bettong browsing; and second, a high shrub density in the absence of fire. These results have broad implications for pastoral and conservation management in Australian semi-arid rangelands.
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Trappe JM, Nicholls AO, Claridge AW, Cork SJ. Prescribed burning in a Eucalyptus woodland suppresses fruiting of hypogeous fungi, an important food source for mammals. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 110:1333-9. [PMID: 17059885 DOI: 10.1016/j.mycres.2006.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2005] [Revised: 07/05/2006] [Accepted: 07/15/2006] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Fruit bodies of hypogeous fungi are an important food source for many small mammals and are consumed by larger mammals as well. A controversial hypothesis that prescribed burning increases fruiting of certain hypogeous fungi based on observations in Tasmania was tested in the Australian Capital Territory to determine if it applied in a quite different habitat. Ten pairs of plots, burnt and nonburnt, were established at each of two sites prescribe-burnt in May 1999. When sampled in early July, after autumn rains had initiated the fungal fruiting season, species richness and numbers of fruit bodies on the burnt plots were extremely low: most plots produced none at all. Both species richness and fruit body numbers were simultaneously high on nonburnt plots. One of the sites was resampled a year after the initial sampling. At that time species richness and fruit body abundance were still significantly less on burnt plots than on nonburnt, but a strong trend towards fungal recovery on the burnt plots was evident. This was particularly so when numbers of fruit bodies of one species, the hypogeous agaric Dermocybe globuliformis, were removed from the analysis. This species strongly dominated the nonburnt plots but was absent from burnt plots in both years. The trend towards recovery of fruit body abundance in the burnt plots one year after the burn was much more pronounced with exclusion of the Dermocybe data. The Tasmanian-based hypothesis was based mostly on the fruiting of two fire-adapted species in the Mesophelliaceae. Neither species occurred on our plots. Accordingly, the results and conclusions of the Tasmanian study cannot be extrapolated to other habitats without extensive additional study. Implications for management of habitat for fungi and the animals that rely on the fungi as a food source are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Trappe
- Department of Forest Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331-5752, USA.
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Composition and Nutritional Characteristics of Fungi Consumed by Callimico goeldii in Pando, Bolivia. INT J PRIMATOL 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-005-9014-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Rose RW, Morahan TM, Mulchay JE, Ratkowsky DA. Milk composition and growth in wild and captive Tasmanian bettongs, Bettongia gaimardi (Marsupialia). J Comp Physiol B 2003; 173:125-33. [PMID: 12624650 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-002-0315-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/18/2002] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Changes in milk composition (total solids, carbohydrate, protein, lipid and calculated gross energy content) during lactation in three groups of Tasmanian bettongs ( Bettongia gaimardi): free-living animals (wild group), captive animals offered a diet of dry dog food and apples ad libitum (ad lib group), and captive animals fed restricted amounts of the same diet (maintenance group) were related to growth rates (measured as body mass and head length) of their young. There were no significant differences in the concentration of milk solids among the three groups, but the wild group had higher lipid concentrations and the maintenance group had higher carbohydrate but lower protein concentrations. For all three groups, milk total solids increased through lactation from ca. 25% to ca. 45% and carbohydrate concentrations decreased from ca. 18% to about 3%. Protein concentrations increased from ca. 5% to ca. 10% in the wild and ad lib groups, but only from 4% to 8% in the maintenance group. Lipid concentrations increased in the wild and ad lib groups from ca. 4% to ca. 18%, but in the maintenance group only to ca. 7%. Calculated gross energy content of milk increased through lactation in the wild and ad lib groups (from ca. 500 kJ.100 ml(-1) to ca. 1,000 kJ.100 ml(-1)), but there was no significant increase in the maintenance group. The volume of milk produced increased to a peak just prior to permanent pouch vacation by the young, when the gross energy output in milk was 120-150 kJ.3 h(-1) in the wild and ad lib groups. On a daily basis this is equivalent to the milk energy output of larger wallabies, and helps to explain the relatively high growth rates of young Tasmanian bettongs. There were significant differences in growth rates among the groups, with the heaviest young always in the ad lib group. Thus differences in milk composition resulting from different planes of nutrition can lead to differences in growth rates of marsupial young.
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Affiliation(s)
- R W Rose
- School of Zoology, University of Tasmania, GPO Box 252-05, 7001 Hobart, Tasmania, Australia.
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Mcilwee AP, Johnson CN. The contribution of fungus to the diets of three mycophagous marsupials in Eucalyptus
forests, revealed by stable isotope analysis. Funct Ecol 2002. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2435.1998.00181.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Mycorrhizal effectiveness of Rhizopogon spores recovered from faecal pellets of small forest-dwelling mammals. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1017/s0953756202005634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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TORY MK, MAY TW, KEANE PJ, BENNETT AF. Mycophagy in small mammals: A comparison of the occurrence and diversity of hypogeal fungi in the diet of the long-nosed potoroo Potorous tridactylus and the bush rat Rattus fuscipes from southwestern Victoria, Australia. AUSTRAL ECOL 1997. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1442-9993.1997.tb00697.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Reddell P, Spain AV, Hopkins M. Dispersal of Spores of Mycorrhizal Fungi in Scats of Native Mammals in Tropical Forests of Northeastern Australia. Biotropica 1997. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7429.1997.tb00023.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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