Real-time analysis of double-strand DNA break repair by homologous recombination

Mutations and structural variants arising during double-strand break repair

Double-strand break (DSB) repair is highly mutagenic compared to normal replication. In budding yeast, repair of an HO endonuclease-induced DSB at MATα can be repaired by using a transcriptionally silent HMR::Kl-URA3 donor. During repair, -1 deletions in homonucleotide runs are strongly favored over +1 insertions, whereas during replication, spontaneous +1 and -1 events are equal. Microhomology-bounded, repair-associated intragenic deletions (IDs) are recovered 12 times more frequently than tandem duplications (TDs). IDs have a mean length of 56 bp, while TDs average 22 bp. These data suggest a picture of the structure of the repair replication fork: IDs and TDs occur within the open structure of a migrating D-loop, where the 3' end of a partly copied new DNA strand can dissociate and anneal with a single-stranded region of microhomology that lies either ~80 bp ahead or ~40 bp behind the 3' end. Another major class of repair-associated mutations (~10%) are interchromosomal template switches (ICTS), even though the K. lactis URA3 sequence in HMR is only 72% identical (homeologous) with S. cerevisiae ura3-52. ICTS events begin and end at regions of short (~7 bp) microhomology; however, ICTS events are constrained to the middle of the copied sequence. Whereas microhomology usage in intragenic deletions is not influenced by adjacent homeology, we show that extensive pairing of adjacent homeology plays a critical role in ICTS. Thus, although by convention, structural variants are characterized by the precise base pairs at their junction, microhomology-mediated template switching actually requires alignment of extensive adjacent homeology.

A Rapidly Inducible DNA Double-Strand Break to Monitor Telomere Formation, DNA Repair, and Checkpoint Activation

The study of processes that govern genome integrity has been augmented by the ability to create a precise DNA double-strand break (DSB) in a short period of time that allows the kinetics of DNA metabolism and protein recruitment to be followed. Defined DSBs are made by expressing endonucleases with long recognition sites that are rare or absent in the genome, and require that the endonuclease is only active when induced. Research in this area in Schizosaccharomyces pombe was limited because rapidly inducible promoters were not available until around 2005, and several rapidly inducible DSB systems are now available. Here, we describe a system to rapidly induce a modified I-SceI endonuclease that can generate a DSB 20 min after induction. I-SceI has no recognition sites in the S. pombe genome, allowing the introduction of complex substrates to monitor the effects of a new DSB in real time. This chapter describes how I-SceI can be most efficiently induced and a simple cell length measurement assay to monitor cell cycle checkpoint activation from a single DSB.

Differences in RAD51 transcriptional response and cell cycle dynamics reveal varying sensitivity to DNA damage among Arabidopsis thaliana root cell types

Throughout their lifecycle, plants are subjected to DNA damage from various sources, both environmental and endogenous. Investigating the mechanisms of the DNA damage response (DDR) is essential to unravel how plants adapt to the changing environment, which can induce varying amounts of DNA damage. Using a combination of whole-mount single-molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (WM-smFISH) and plant cell cycle reporter lines, we investigated the transcriptional activation of a key homologous recombination (HR) gene, RAD51, in response to increasing amounts of DNA damage in Arabidopsis thaliana roots. The results uncover consistent variations in RAD51 transcriptional response and cell cycle arrest among distinct cell types and developmental zones. Furthermore, we demonstrate that DNA damage induced by genotoxic stress results in RAD51 transcription throughout the whole cell cycle, dissociating its traditional link with S/G2 phases. This work advances the current comprehension of DNA damage response in plants by demonstrating quantitative differences in DDR activation. In addition, it reveals new associations with the cell cycle and cell types, providing crucial insights for further studies of the broader response mechanisms in plants.

Double-strand break repair-associated intragenic deletions and tandem duplications suggest the architecture of the repair replication fork

Double-strand break (DSB) repair is associated with a 1000-fold increase in mutations compared to normal replication of the same sequences. In budding yeast, repair of an HO endonuclease-induced DSB at the MATα locus can be repaired by using a homologous, heterochromatic HMR::Kl-URA3 donor harboring a transcriptionally silenced URA3 gene, resulting in a MAT::URA3 (Ura+) repair product where URA3 is expressed. Repair-associated ura3- mutations can be selected by resistance to 5-fluoroorotic acid (FOA). Using this system, we find that a major class of mutations are -1 deletions, almost always in homonucleotide runs, but there are few +1 insertions. In contrast, +1 and -1 insertions in homonucleotide runs are nearly equal among spontaneous mutations. Approximately 10% of repair-associated mutations are interchromosomal template switches (ICTS), even though the K. lactis URA3 sequence embedded in HMR is only 72% identical with S. cerevisiae ura3-52 sequences on a different chromosome. ICTS events begin and end in regions of short microhomology, averaging 7 bp. Long microhomologies are favored, but some ICTS junctions are as short as 2 bp. Both repair-associated intragenic deletions (IDs) and tandem duplications (TDs) are recovered, with junctions sharing short stretches of, on average, 6 bp of microhomology. Intragenic deletions are more than 5 times more frequent than TDs. IDs have a mean length of 60 bp, but, surprisingly there are almost no deletions shorter than 25 bp. In contrast, TDs average only 12 bp. The usage of microhomologies among intragenic deletions is not strongly influenced by the degree of adjacent homeology. Together, these data provide a picture of the structure of the repair replication fork. We suggest that IDs and TDs occur within the migrating D-loop in which DNA polymerase δ copies the template, where the 3' end of a partly copied new DNA strand can dissociate and anneal with a single-stranded region of microhomology that lies either in front or behind the 3' end, within the open structure of a migrating D-loop. Our data suggest that ~100 bp ahead of the polymerase is "open," but that part of the repair replication apparatus remains bound in the 25 bp ahead of the newly copied DNA, preventing annealing. In contrast, the template region behind the polymerase appears to be rapidly reannealed, limiting template switching to a very short region.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a Model System for Eukaryotic Cell Biology, from Cell Cycle Control to DNA Damage Response

The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been used for bread making and beer brewing for thousands of years. In addition, its ease of manipulation, well-annotated genome, expansive molecular toolbox, and its strong conservation of basic eukaryotic biology also make it a prime model for eukaryotic cell biology and genetics. In this review, we discuss the characteristics that made yeast such an extensively used model organism and specifically focus on the DNA damage response pathway as a prime example of how research in S. cerevisiae helped elucidate a highly conserved biological process. In addition, we also highlight differences in the DNA damage response of S. cerevisiae and humans and discuss the challenges of using S. cerevisiae as a model system.

Applications of and considerations for using CRISPR-Cas9-mediated gene conversion systems in rodents

Genetic elements that are inherited at super-Mendelian frequencies could be used in a 'gene drive' to spread an allele to high prevalence in a population with the goal of eliminating invasive species or disease vectors. We recently demonstrated that the gene conversion mechanism underlying a CRISPR-Cas9-mediated gene drive is feasible in mice. Although substantial technical hurdles remain, overcoming these could lead to strategies that might decrease the spread of rodent-borne Lyme disease or eliminate invasive populations of mice and rats that devastate island ecology. Perhaps more immediately achievable at moderate gene conversion efficiency, applications in a laboratory setting could produce complex genotypes that reduce the time and cost in both dollars and animal lives compared with Mendelian inheritance strategies. Here, we discuss what we have learned from early efforts to achieve CRISPR-Cas9-mediated gene conversion, potential for broader applications in the laboratory, current limitations, and plans for optimizing this potentially powerful technology.

Local nucleosome dynamics and eviction following a double-strand break are reversible by NHEJ-mediated repair in the absence of DNA replication

We interrogated at nucleotide resolution the spatiotemporal order of chromatin changes that occur immediately following a site-specific double-strand break (DSB) upstream of the PHO5 locus and its subsequent repair by nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ). We observed the immediate eviction of a nucleosome flanking the break and the repositioning of adjacent nucleosomes away from the break. These early chromatin events were independent of the end-processing Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 (MRX) complex and preceded the MRX-dependent broad eviction of histones and DNA end-resectioning that extends up to ∼8 kb away from the break. We also examined the temporal dynamics of NHEJ-mediated repair in a G1-arrested population. Concomitant with DSB repair by NHEJ, we observed the redeposition and precise repositioning of nucleosomes at their originally occupied positions. This re-establishment of the prelesion chromatin landscape suggests that a DNA replication-independent mechanism exists to preserve epigenome organization following DSB repair.

Trypanosoma brucei ATR Links DNA Damage Signaling during Antigenic Variation with Regulation of RNA Polymerase I-Transcribed Surface Antigens

Trypanosoma brucei evades mammalian immunity by using recombination to switch its surface-expressed variant surface glycoprotein (VSG), while ensuring that only one of many subtelomeric multigene VSG expression sites are transcribed at a time. DNA repair activities have been implicated in the catalysis of VSG switching by recombination, not transcriptional control. How VSG switching is signaled to guide the appropriate reaction or to integrate switching into parasite growth is unknown. Here, we show that the loss of ATR, a DNA damage-signaling protein kinase, is lethal, causing nuclear genome instability and increased VSG switching through VSG-localized damage. Furthermore, ATR loss leads to the increased transcription of silent VSG expression sites and expression of mixed VSGs on the cell surface, effects that are associated with the altered localization of RNA polymerase I and VEX1. This work shows that ATR acts in antigenic variation both through DNA damage signaling and surface antigen expression control.

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Loss of the repair protein kinase ATR in Trypanosoma brucei is lethal

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Loss of T. brucei ATR alters VSG coat expression needed for immune evasion

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Monoallelic RNA polymerase I VSG expression is undermined by ATR loss

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ATR loss leads to expression of subtelomeric VSGs, indicative of recombination

Rdh54/Tid1 inhibits Rad51-Rad54-mediated D-loop formation and limits D-loop length

Displacement loops (D-loops) are critical intermediates formed during homologous recombination. Rdh54 (a.k.a. Tid1), a Rad54 paralog in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is well-known for its role with Dmc1 recombinase during meiotic recombination. Yet contrary to Dmc1, Rdh54/Tid1 is also present in somatic cells where its function is less understood. While Rdh54/Tid1 enhances the Rad51 DNA strand invasion activity in vitro, it is unclear how it interplays with Rad54. Here, we show that Rdh54/Tid1 inhibits D-loop formation by Rad51 and Rad54 in an ATPase-independent manner. Using a novel D-loop Mapping Assay, we further demonstrate that Rdh54/Tid1 uniquely restricts the length of Rad51-Rad54-mediated D-loops. The alterations in D-loop properties appear to be important for cell survival and mating-type switch in haploid yeast. We propose that Rdh54/Tid1 and Rad54 compete for potential binding sites within the Rad51 filament, where Rdh54/Tid1 acts as a physical roadblock to Rad54 translocation, limiting D-loop formation and D-loop length.

Bisulfite treatment and single-molecule real-time sequencing reveal D-loop length, position, and distribution

Displacement loops (D-loops) are signature intermediates formed during homologous recombination. Numerous factors regulate D-loop formation and disruption, thereby influencing crucial aspects of DNA repair, including donor choice and the possibility of crossover outcome. While D-loop detection methods exist, it is currently unfeasible to assess the relationship between D-loop editors and D-loop characteristics such as length and position. Here, we developed a novel in vitro assay to characterize the length and position of individual D-loops with near base-pair resolution and deep coverage, while also revealing their distribution in a population. Non-denaturing bisulfite treatment modifies the cytosines on the displaced strand of the D-loop to uracil, leaving a permanent signature for the displaced strand. Subsequent single-molecule real-time sequencing uncovers the cytosine conversion patch as a D-loop footprint. The D-loop Mapping Assay is widely applicable with different substrates and donor types and can be used to study factors that influence D-loop properties.

A Rad51-independent pathway promotes single-strand template repair in gene editing

The Rad51/RecA family of recombinases perform a critical function in typical repair of double-strand breaks (DSBs): strand invasion of a resected DSB end into a homologous double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) template sequence to initiate repair. However, repair of a DSB using single stranded DNA (ssDNA) as a template, a common method of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing, is Rad51-independent. We have analyzed the genetic requirements for these Rad51-independent events in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by creating a DSB with the site-specific HO endonuclease and repairing the DSB with 80-nt single-stranded oligonucleotides (ssODNs), and confirmed these results by Cas9-mediated DSBs in combination with a bacterial retron system that produces ssDNA templates in vivo. We show that single strand template repair (SSTR), is dependent on Rad52, Rad59, Srs2 and the Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 (MRX) complex, but unlike other Rad51-independent recombination events, independent of Rdh54. We show that Rad59 acts to alleviate the inhibition of Rad51 on Rad52's strand annealing activity both in SSTR and in single strand annealing (SSA). Gene editing is Rad51-dependent when double-stranded oligonucleotides of the same size and sequence are introduced as templates. The assimilation of mismatches during gene editing is dependent on the activity of Msh2, which acts very differently on the 3' side of the ssODN which can anneal directly to the resected DSB end compared to the 5' end. In addition DNA polymerase Polδ's 3' to 5' proofreading activity frequently excises a mismatch very close to the 3' end of the template. We further report that SSTR is accompanied by as much as a 600-fold increase in mutations in regions adjacent to the sequences directly undergoing repair. These DNA polymerase ζ-dependent mutations may compromise the accuracy of gene editing.

Folate stress induces SLX1- and RAD51-dependent mitotic DNA synthesis at the fragile X locus in human cells

Folate deficiency is associated with multiple disorders in humans. Through the analysis of the fragile X syndrome locus (FRAXA) in immortalized human lymphocytes or fibroblasts, we demonstrate that FRAXA undergoes DNA synthesis in mitosis (MiDAS). We demonstrate that this process occurs via break-induced DNA replication and requires the SLX1/SLX4 endonuclease complex, the RAD51 recombinase and POLD3, a subunit of polymerase delta. We also demonstrate that other loci undergo MiDAS upon folate stress. This study reveals a function of human SLX1 in the maintenance of FRAXA stability and provides evidence that, in addition to FRAXA, MiDAS occurs at other loci following folate deprivation. These findings provide insight into the diverse and detrimental consequences of folate deficiency in human cells.

Folate deprivation drives the instability of a group of rare fragile sites (RFSs) characterized by CGG trinucleotide repeat (TNR) sequences. Pathological expansion of the TNR within the FRAXA locus perturbs DNA replication and is the major causative factor for fragile X syndrome, a sex-linked disorder associated with cognitive impairment. Although folate-sensitive RFSs share many features with common fragile sites (CFSs; which are found in all individuals), they are induced by different stresses and share no sequence similarity. It is known that a pathway (termed MiDAS) is employed to complete the replication of CFSs in early mitosis. This process requires RAD52 and is implicated in generating translocations and copy number changes at CFSs in cancers. However, it is unclear whether RFSs also utilize MiDAS and to what extent the fragility of CFSs and RFSs arises by shared or distinct mechanisms. Here, we demonstrate that MiDAS does occur at FRAXA following folate deprivation but proceeds via a pathway that shows some mechanistic differences from that at CFSs, being dependent on RAD51, SLX1, and POLD3. A failure to complete MiDAS at FRAXA leads to severe locus instability and missegregation in mitosis. We propose that break-induced DNA replication is required for the replication of FRAXA under folate stress and define a cellular function for human SLX1. These findings provide insights into how folate deprivation drives instability in the human genome.

Rad9/53BP1 promotes DNA repair via crossover recombination by limiting the Sgs1 and Mph1 helicases

The DNA damage checkpoint (DDC) is often robustly activated during the homologous recombination (HR) repair of DNA double strand breaks (DSBs). DDC activation controls several HR repair factors by phosphorylation, preventing premature segregation of entangled chromosomes formed during HR repair. The DDC mediator 53BP1/Rad9 limits the nucleolytic processing (resection) of a DSB, controlling the formation of the 3′ single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) filament needed for recombination, from yeast to human. Here we show that Rad9 promotes stable annealing between the recombinogenic filament and the donor template in yeast, limiting strand rejection by the Sgs1 and Mph1 helicases. This regulation allows repair by long tract gene conversion, crossover recombination and break-induced replication (BIR), only after DDC activation. These findings shed light on how cells couple DDC with the choice and effectiveness of HR sub-pathways, with implications for genome instability and cancer.

In budding yeast, the 53BP1 ortholog Rad9 limits the resection nucleolytic processing of DNA double strand breaks. Here the authors reveal that Rad9 promotes long tract gene conversions, BIR and CO, during the HR repair of a DSB via modulation of Sgs1 and Mph1 helicases.

G-protein-coupled Receptors in Fungi

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of transmembrane receptors in fungi. These receptors have an important role in the transduction of extracellular signals into intracellular sites in response to diverse stimuli. They enable fungi to coordinate cell function and metabolism, thereby promoting their survival and propagation, and sense certain fundamentally conserved elements, such as nutrients, pheromones, and stress, for adaptation to their niches, environmental stresses, and host environment, causing disease and pathogen virulence. This chapter highlights the role of GPCRs in fungi in coordinating cell function and metabolism. Fungal cells sense the molecular interactions between extracellular signals. Their respective sensory systems are described here in detail.

Mating-type switching by homology-directed recombinational repair: a matter of choice

In eukaryotes, all DNA transactions happen in the context of chromatin that often takes part in regulatory mechanisms. In particular, chromatin structure can regulate exchanges of DNA occurring through homologous recombination. Few systems have provided as detailed a view on this phenomenon as mating-type switching in yeast. Mating-type switching entails the choice of a template for the gene conversions of the expressed mating-type locus. In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, correct template choice requires two competing small recombination enhancers, SRE2 and SRE3, that function in the context of heterochromatin. These two enhancers act with the Swi2/Swi5 recombination accessory complex to initiate strand exchange in a cell-type-specific manner, from SRE2 in M cells and SRE3 in P cells. New research indicates that the Set1C complex, responsible for H3K4 methylation, and the Brl2 ubiquitin ligase, that catalyzes H2BK119 ubiquitylation, participate in the cell-type-specific selection of SRE2 or SRE3. Here, we review these findings, compare donor preference in S. pombe to the distantly related budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and contrast the positive effects of heterochromatin on the donor selection process with other situations, where heterochromatin represses recombination.

Observing DNA in live cells

The structural organization and dynamics of DNA are known to be of paramount importance in countless cellular processes, but capturing these events poses a unique challenge. Fluorescence microscopy is well suited for these live-cell investigations, but requires attaching fluorescent labels to the species under investigation. Over the past several decades, a suite of techniques have been developed for labeling and imaging DNA, each with various advantages and drawbacks. Here, we provide an overview of the labeling and imaging tools currently available for visualizing DNA in live cells, and discuss their suitability for various applications.

DNA Repair: The Search for Homology

The repair of chromosomal double-strand breaks (DSBs) by homologous recombination is essential to maintain genome integrity. The key step in DSB repair is the RecA/Rad51-mediated process to match sequences at the broken end to homologous donor sequences that can be used as a template to repair the lesion. Here, in reviewing research about DSB repair, I consider the many factors that appear to play important roles in the successful search for homology by several homologous recombination mechanisms. See also the video abstract here: https://youtu.be/vm7-X5uIzS8.

Investigation of Protein Recruitment to DNA Lesions Using 405 Nm Laser Micro-irradiation

The DNA Damage Response (DDR) uses a plethora of proteins to detect, signal, and repair DNA lesions. Delineating this response is critical to understand genome maintenance mechanisms. Since recruitment and exchange of proteins at lesions are highly dynamic, their study requires the ability to generate DNA damage in a rapid and spatially-delimited manner. Here, we describe procedures to locally induce DNA damage in human cells using a commonly available laser-scanning confocal microscope equipped with a 405 nm laser line. Accumulation of genome maintenance factors at laser stripes can be assessed by immunofluorescence (IF) or in real-time using proteins tagged with fluorescent reporters. Using phosphorylated histone H2A.X (γ-H2A.X) and Replication Protein A (RPA) as markers, the method provides sufficient resolution to discriminate locally-recruited factors from those that spread on adjacent chromatin. We further provide ImageJ-based scripts to efficiently monitor the kinetics of protein relocalization at DNA damage sites. These refinements greatly simplify the study of the DDR dynamics.

Impact of Homologous Recombination on Silent Chromatin in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Specialized chromatin domains repress transcription of genes within them and present a barrier to many DNA-protein interactions. Silent chromatin in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, akin to heterochromatin of metazoans and plants, inhibits transcription of PolII- and PolIII-transcribed genes, yet somehow grants access to proteins necessary for DNA transactions like replication and homologous recombination. In this study, we adapted a novel assay to detect even transient changes in the dynamics of transcriptional silencing at HML after it served as a template for homologous recombination. Homologous recombination specifically targeted to HML via double-strand-break formation at a homologous locus often led to transient loss of transcriptional silencing at HML Interestingly, many cells could template homology-directed repair at HML without an obligate loss of silencing, even in recombination events with extensive gene conversion tracts. In a population of cells that experienced silencing loss following recombination, transcription persisted for 2-3 hr after all double-strand breaks were repaired. mRNA levels from cells that experienced recombination-induced silencing loss did not approach the amount of mRNA seen in cells lacking transcriptional silencing. Thus, silencing loss at HML after homologous recombination was short-lived and limited.

CRISPR/Cas9 cleavages in budding yeast reveal templated insertions and strand-specific insertion/deletion profiles

Harnessing CRISPR-Cas9 technology provides an unprecedented ability to modify genomic loci via DNA double-strand break (DSB) induction and repair. We analyzed nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) repair induced by Cas9 in budding yeast and found that the orientation of binding of Cas9 and its guide RNA (gRNA) profoundly influences the pattern of insertion/deletions (indels) at the site of cleavage. A common indel created by Cas9 is a 1-bp (+1) insertion that appears to result from Cas9 creating a 1-nt 5' overhang that is filled in by a DNA polymerase and ligated. The origin of +1 insertions was investigated by using two gRNAs with PAM sequences located on opposite DNA strands but designed to cleave the same sequence. These templated +1 insertions are dependent on the X-family DNA polymerase, Pol4. Deleting Pol4 also eliminated +2 and +3 insertions, which are biased toward homonucleotide insertions. Using inverted PAM sequences, we also found significant differences in overall NHEJ efficiency and repair profiles, suggesting that the binding of the Cas9:gRNA complex influences subsequent NHEJ processing. As with events induced by the site-specific HO endonuclease, CRISPR-Cas9-mediated NHEJ repair depends on the Ku heterodimer and DNA ligase 4. Cas9 events are highly dependent on the Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 complex, independent of Mre11's nuclease activity. Inspection of the outcomes of a large number of Cas9 cleavage events in mammalian cells reveals a similar templated origin of +1 insertions in human cells, but also a significant frequency of similarly templated +2 insertions.

A Proximity Ligation-Based Method for Quantitative Measurement of D-Loop Extension in S. cerevisiae

Homologous recombination faithfully restores the sequence information interrupted by a DNA double-strand break by referencing an intact DNA molecule as a template for repair DNA synthesis. DNA synthesis is primed from 3'-OH end of the invading DNA strand in the displacement loop (D-loop). Here, we describe a simple and quantitative proximity ligation-based assay to study the initiation of homologous recombination-associated DNA synthesis initiated at the D-loop and final product formation. The D-loop extension assay overcomes the semiquantitative nature and some limitations of the current PCR-based technique and facilitates the study of the recombination-associated DNA synthesis.

Repair of a Site-Specific DNA Cleavage: Old-School Lessons for Cas9-Mediated Gene Editing

CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing may involve nonhomologous end-joining to create various insertion/deletions (indels) or may employ homologous recombination to modify precisely the target DNA sequence. Our understanding of these processes has been guided by earlier studies using other site-specific endonucleases, both in model organisms such as budding yeast and in mammalian cells. We briefly review what has been gleaned from such studies using the HO and I-SceI endonucleases and how these findings guide current gene editing strategies.

CDC7-dependent transcriptional regulation of RAD54L is essential for tumorigenicity and radio-resistance of glioblastoma

Accumulating evidence indicates that cell division cycle 7-related protein kinase(CDC7) plays an essential role in tumor cells and it could induces cell proliferation and could be related to prognosis in multiple types of cancer. However, the biological role and molecular mechanism of CDC7 in GBM still remains unclear. In this study, we identified that CDC7 expression was enriched in glioblastoma (GBM) tumors and was functionally required for tumor proliferation and its expression was associated to poor prognosis in GBM patients. Mechanically, CDC7 induced radio resistance in GBM cells and CDC7 knock down increased cell apoptosis when combined with radiotherapy. Moreover, CDC7 regulated The DNA repair/recombination protein 54L (RAD54L) expression via regulation of RAD54L promoter activity. Therapeutically, we found that CDC7 inhibitor attenuated tumor growth both in vitro and in vivo. Collectively, CDC7 promotes proliferation, induces radio resistance in GBM, and could become a potential therapeutic target for GBM.

DNA Replication Control During Drosophila Development: Insights into the Onset of S Phase, Replication Initiation, and Fork Progression

Proper control of DNA replication is critical to ensure genomic integrity during cell proliferation. In addition, differential regulation of the DNA replication program during development can change gene copy number to influence cell size and gene expression. Drosophila melanogaster serves as a powerful organism to study the developmental control of DNA replication in various cell cycle contexts in a variety of differentiated cell and tissue types. Additionally, Drosophila has provided several developmentally regulated replication models to dissect the molecular mechanisms that underlie replication-based copy number changes in the genome, which include differential underreplication and gene amplification. Here, we review key findings and our current understanding of the developmental control of DNA replication in the contexts of the archetypal replication program as well as of underreplication and differential gene amplification. We focus on the use of these latter two replication systems to delineate many of the molecular mechanisms that underlie the developmental control of replication initiation and fork elongation.

An Evolutionary Perspective on Yeast Mating-Type Switching

Cell differentiation in yeast species is controlled by a reversible, programmed DNA-rearrangement process called mating-type switching. Switching is achieved by two functionally similar but structurally distinct processes in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. In both species, haploid cells possess one active and two silent copies of the mating-type locus (a three-cassette structure), the active locus is cleaved, and synthesis-dependent strand annealing is used to replace it with a copy of a silent locus encoding the opposite mating-type information. Each species has its own set of components responsible for regulating these processes. In this review, we summarize knowledge about the function and evolution of mating-type switching components in these species, including mechanisms of heterochromatin formation, MAT locus cleavage, donor bias, lineage tracking, and environmental regulation of switching. We compare switching in these well-studied species to others such as Kluyveromyces lactis and the methylotrophic yeasts Ogataea polymorpha and Komagataella phaffii. We focus on some key questions: Which cells switch mating type? What molecular apparatus is required for switching? Where did it come from? And what is the evolutionary purpose of switching?

Inter-Fork Strand Annealing causes genomic deletions during the termination of DNA replication

Problems that arise during DNA replication can drive genomic alterations that are instrumental in the development of cancers and many human genetic disorders. Replication fork barriers are a commonly encountered problem, which can cause fork collapse and act as hotspots for replication termination. Collapsed forks can be rescued by homologous recombination, which restarts replication. However, replication restart is relatively slow and, therefore, replication termination may frequently occur by an active fork converging on a collapsed fork. We find that this type of non-canonical fork convergence in fission yeast is prone to trigger deletions between repetitive DNA sequences via a mechanism we call Inter-Fork Strand Annealing (IFSA) that depends on the recombination proteins Rad52, Exo1 and Mus81, and is countered by the FANCM-related DNA helicase Fml1. Based on our findings, we propose that IFSA is a potential threat to genomic stability in eukaryotes.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.25490.001

Progerin sequestration of PCNA promotes replication fork collapse and mislocalization of XPA in laminopathy-related progeroid syndromes

Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS) is a rare genetic disorder that is caused by a point mutation in the LMNA gene, resulting in production of a truncated farnesylated-prelamin A protein (progerin). We previously reported that XPA mislocalized to the progerin-induced DNA double-strand break (DSB) sites, blocking DSB repair, which led to DSB accumulation, DNA damage responses, and early replication arrest in HGPS. In this study, the XPA mislocalization to DSBs occurred at stalled or collapsed replication forks, concurrent with a significant loss of PCNA at the forks, whereas PCNA efficiently bound to progerin. This PCNA sequestration likely exposed ds-ssDNA junctions at replication forks for XPA binding. Depletion of XPA or progerin each significantly restored PCNA at replication forks. Our results suggest that although PCNA is much more competitive than XPA in binding replication forks, PCNA sequestration by progerin may shift the equilibrium to favor XPA binding. Furthermore, we demonstrated that progerin-induced apoptosis could be rescued by XPA, suggesting that XPA-replication fork binding may prevent apoptosis in HGPS cells. Our results propose a mechanism for progerin-induced genome instability and accelerated replicative senescence in HGPS.-Hilton, B. A., Liu, J., Cartwright, B. M., Liu, Y., Breitman, M., Wang, Y., Jones, R., Tang, H., Rusinol, A., Musich, P. R., Zou, Y. Progerin sequestration of PCNA promotes replication fork collapse and mislocalization of XPA in laminopathy-related progeroid syndromes.

Rad51-mediated double-strand break repair and mismatch correction of divergent substrates

The Rad51 (also known as RecA) family of recombinases executes the critical step in homologous recombination: the search for homologous DNA to serve as a template during the repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). Although budding yeast Rad51 has been extensively characterized in vitro, the stringency of its search and sensitivity to mismatched sequences in vivo remain poorly defined. Here, in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we analysed Rad51-dependent break-induced replication in which the invading DSB end and its donor template share a 108-base-pair homology region and the donor carries different densities of single-base-pair mismatches. With every eighth base pair mismatched, repair was about 14% of that of completely homologous sequences. With every sixth base pair mismatched, repair was still more than 5%. Thus, completing break-induced replication in vivo overcomes the apparent requirement for at least 6-8 consecutive paired bases that has been inferred from in vitro studies. When recombination occurs without a protruding nonhomologous 3' tail, the mismatch repair protein Msh2 does not discourage homeologous recombination. However, when the DSB end contains a 3' protruding nonhomologous tail, Msh2 promotes the rejection of mismatched substrates. Mismatch correction of strand invasion heteroduplex DNA is strongly polar, favouring correction close to the DSB end. Nearly all mismatch correction depends on the proofreading activity of DNA polymerase-δ, although the repair proteins Msh2, Mlh1 and Exo1 influence the extent of correction.

Asf1 facilitates dephosphorylation of Rad53 after DNA double-strand break repair

In this study, Tsabar et al. investigated how the DNA damage checkpoint is extinguished and found that dissociation of histone H3 from Asf1, a histone chaperone, is required for efficient recovery. They also show that Asf1 is required for complete dephosphorylation of Rad53 when the upstream DNA damage checkpoint signaling is turned off, providing new insights into the mechanisms regulating the response to DNA damage.

To allow for sufficient time to repair DNA double-stranded breaks (DSBs), eukaryotic cells activate the DNA damage checkpoint. In budding yeast, Rad53 (mammalian Chk2) phosphorylation parallels the persistence of the unrepaired DSB and is extinguished when repair is complete in a process termed recovery or when the cells adapt to the DNA damage checkpoint. A strain containing a slowly repaired DSB does not require the histone chaperone Asf1 to resume cell cycle progression after DSB repair. When a second, rapidly repairable DSB is added to this strain, Asf1 becomes required for recovery. Recovery from two repairable DSBs also depends on the histone acetyltransferase Rtt109 and the cullin subunit Rtt101, both of which modify histone H3 that is associated with Asf1. We show that dissociation of histone H3 from Asf1 is required for efficient recovery and that Asf1 is required for complete dephosphorylation of Rad53 when the upstream DNA damage checkpoint signaling is turned off. Our data suggest that the requirements for recovery from the DNA damage checkpoint become more stringent with increased levels of damage and that Asf1 plays a histone chaperone-independent role in facilitating complete Rad53 dephosphorylation following repair.

Homology Requirements and Competition between Gene Conversion and Break-Induced Replication during Double-Strand Break Repair

Saccharomyces cerevisiae mating-type switching is initiated by a double-strand break (DSB) at MATa, leaving one cut end perfectly homologous to the HMLα donor, while the second end must be processed to remove a non-homologous tail before completing repair by gene conversion (GC). When homology at the matched end is ≤150 bp, efficient repair depends on the recombination enhancer, which tethers HMLα near the DSB. Thus, homology shorter than an apparent minimum efficient processing segment can be rescued by tethering the donor near the break. When homology at the second end is ≤150 bp, second-end capture becomes inefficient and repair shifts from GC to break-induced replication (BIR). But when pol32 or pif1 mutants block BIR, GC increases 3-fold, indicating that the steps blocked by these mutations are reversible. With short second-end homology, absence of the RecQ helicase Sgs1 promotes gene conversion, whereas deletion of the FANCM-related Mph1 helicase promotes BIR.

Multiple mechanisms contribute to double-strand break repair at rereplication forks in Drosophila follicle cells

Rereplication generates double-strand breaks (DSBs) at sites of fork collisions and causes genomic damage, including repeat instability and chromosomal aberrations. However, the primary mechanism used to repair rereplication DSBs varies across different experimental systems. In Drosophila follicle cells, developmentally regulated rereplication is used to amplify six genomic regions, two of which contain genes encoding eggshell proteins. We have exploited this system to test the roles of several DSB repair pathways during rereplication, using fork progression as a readout for DSB repair efficiency. Here we show that a null mutation in the microhomology-mediated end-joining (MMEJ) component, polymerase θ/mutagen-sensitive 308 (mus308), exhibits a sporadic thin eggshell phenotype and reduced chorion gene expression. Unlike other thin eggshell mutants, mus308 displays normal origin firing but reduced fork progression at two regions of rereplication. We also find that MMEJ compensates for loss of nonhomologous end joining to repair rereplication DSBs in a site-specific manner. Conversely, we show that fork progression is enhanced in the absence of both Drosophila Rad51 homologs, spindle-A and spindle-B, revealing homologous recombination is active and actually impairs fork movement during follicle cell rereplication. These results demonstrate that several DSB repair pathways are used during rereplication in the follicle cells and their contribution to productive fork progression is influenced by genomic position and repair pathway competition. Furthermore, our findings illustrate that specific rereplication DSB repair pathways can have major effects on cellular physiology, dependent upon genomic context.

Chromosome-refolding model of mating-type switching in yeast

Chromosomes are folded into cells in a nonrandom fashion, with particular genetic loci occupying distinct spatial regions. This observation raises the question of whether the spatial organization of a chromosome governs its functions, such as recombination or transcription. We consider this general question in the specific context of mating-type switching in budding yeast, which is a model system for homologous recombination. Mating-type switching is induced by a DNA double-strand break (DSB) at the MAT locus on chromosome III, followed by homologous recombination between the cut MAT locus and one of two donor loci (HMLα and HMRa), located on the same chromosome. Previous studies have suggested that in MATa cells after the DSB is induced chromosome III undergoes refolding, which directs the MAT locus to recombine with HMLα. Here, we propose a quantitative model of mating-type switching predicated on the assumption of DSB-induced chromosome refolding, which also takes into account the previously measured stochastic dynamics and polymer nature of yeast chromosomes. Using quantitative fluorescence microscopy, we measure changes in the distance between the donor (HMLα) and MAT loci after the DSB and find agreement with the theory. Predictions of the theory also agree with measurements of changes in the use of HMLα as the donor, when we perturb the refolding of chromosome III. These results establish refolding of yeast chromosome III as a key driving force in MAT switching and provide an example of a cell regulating the spatial organization of its chromosome so as to direct homology search during recombination.

A Life Investigating Pathways That Repair Broken Chromosomes

Double-strand breaks (DSBs) pose a severe challenge to genome integrity; consequently, cells have developed efficient mechanisms to repair DSBs through several pathways of homologous recombination and other nonhomologous end-joining processes. Much of our understanding of these pathways has come from the analysis of site-specific DSBs created by the HO endonuclease in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. I was fortunate to get in on the ground floor of analyzing the fate of synchronously induced DSBs through the study of what I coined "in vivo biochemistry." I have had the remarkable good fortune to profit from the development of new techniques that have permitted an ever more detailed dissection of these repair mechanisms, which are described here.

Re-establishment of nucleosome occupancy during double-strand break repair in budding yeast

Homologous recombination (HR) is an evolutionarily conserved pathway in eukaryotes that repairs a double-strand break (DSB) by copying homologous sequences from a sister chromatid, a homologous chromosome or an ectopic location. Recombination is challenged by the packaging of DNA into nucleosomes, which may impair the process at many steps, from resection of the DSB ends to the re-establishement of nucleosomes after repair. However, nucleosome dynamics during DSB repair have not been well described, primarily because of a lack of well-ordered nucleosomes around a DSB. We designed a system in budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to monitor nucleosome dynamics during repair of an HO endonuclease-induced DSB. Nucleosome occupancy around the break is lost following DSB formation, by 5'-3' resection of the DSB end. Soon after repair is complete, nucleosome occupancy is partially restored in a repair-dependent but cell cycle-independent manner. Full re-establishment of nucleosome protection back to the level prior to DSB induction is achieved when the cell cycle resumes following repair. These findings may have implications to the mechanisms by which cells sense the completion of repair.

Eukaryotic resectosomes: A single-molecule perspective

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) disrupt the physical and genetic continuity of the genome. If unrepaired, DSBs can lead to cellular dysfunction and malignant transformation. Homologous recombination (HR) is a universally conserved DSB repair mechanism that employs the information in a sister chromatid to catalyze error-free DSB repair. To initiate HR, cells assemble the resectosome: a multi-protein complex composed of helicases, nucleases, and regulatory proteins. The resectosome nucleolytically degrades (resects) the free DNA ends for downstream homologous recombination. Several decades of intense research have identified the core resectosome components in eukaryotes, archaea, and bacteria. More recently, these proteins have been characterized via single-molecule approaches. Here, we focus on recent single-molecule studies that have begun to unravel how nucleases, helicases, processivity factors, and other regulatory proteins dictate the extent and efficiency of DNA resection in eukaryotic cells. We conclude with a discussion of outstanding questions that can be addressed via single-molecule approaches.

Mapping replication dynamics in Trypanosoma brucei reveals a link with telomere transcription and antigenic variation

Survival of Trypanosoma brucei depends upon switches in its protective Variant Surface Glycoprotein (VSG) coat by antigenic variation. VSG switching occurs by frequent homologous recombination, which is thought to require locus-specific initiation. Here, we show that a RecQ helicase, RECQ2, acts to repair DNA breaks, including in the telomeric site of VSG expression. Despite this, RECQ2 loss does not impair antigenic variation, but causes increased VSG switching by recombination, arguing against models for VSG switch initiation through direct generation of a DNA double strand break (DSB). Indeed, we show DSBs inefficiently direct recombination in the VSG expression site. By mapping genome replication dynamics, we reveal that the transcribed VSG expression site is the only telomeric site that is early replicating - a differential timing only seen in mammal-infective parasites. Specific association between VSG transcription and replication timing reveals a model for antigenic variation based on replication-derived DNA fragility.

The democratization of gene editing: Insights from site-specific cleavage and double-strand break repair

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are dangerous lesions that if not properly repaired can lead to genomic change or cell death. Organisms have developed several pathways and have many factors devoted to repairing DSBs, which broadly occurs by homologous recombination, which relies on an identical or homologous sequence to template repair, or nonhomologous end-joining. Much of our understanding of these repair mechanisms has come from the study of induced DNA cleavage by site-specific endonucleases. In addition to their biological role, these cellular pathways can be co-opted for gene editing to study gene function or for gene therapy or other applications. While the first gene editing experiments were done more than 20 years ago, the recent discovery of RNA-guided endonucleases has simplified approaches developed over the years to make gene editing an approach that is available to the entire biomedical research community. Here, we review DSB repair mechanisms and site-specific cleavage systems that have provided insight into these mechanisms and led to the current gene editing revolution.

Role of Double-Strand Break End-Tethering during Gene Conversion in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Correct repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) is critical for maintaining genome stability. Whereas gene conversion (GC)-mediated repair is mostly error-free, repair by break-induced replication (BIR) is associated with non-reciprocal translocations and loss of heterozygosity. We have previously shown that a Recombination Execution Checkpoint (REC) mediates this competition by preventing the BIR pathway from acting on DSBs that can be repaired by GC. Here, we asked if the REC can also determine whether the ends that are engaged in a GC-compatible configuration belong to the same break, since repair involving ends from different breaks will produce potentially deleterious translocations. We report that the kinetics of repair are markedly delayed when the two DSB ends that participate in GC belong to different DSBs (termed Trans) compared to the case when both DSB ends come from the same break (Cis). However, repair in Trans still occurs by GC rather than BIR, and the overall efficiency of repair is comparable. Hence, the REC is not sensitive to the "origin" of the DSB ends. When the homologous ends for GC are in Trans, the delay in repair appears to reflect their tethering to sequences on the other side of the DSB that themselves recombine with other genomic locations with which they share sequence homology. These data support previous observations that the two ends of a DSB are usually tethered to each other and that this tethering facilitates both ends encountering the same donor sequence. We also found that the presence of homeologous/repetitive sequences in the vicinity of a DSB can distract the DSB end from finding its bona fide homologous donor, and that inhibition of GC by such homeologous sequences is markedly increased upon deleting Sgs1 but not Msh6.

Sgs1 and Mph1 Helicases Enforce the Recombination Execution Checkpoint During DNA Double-Strand Break Repair in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

We have previously shown that a recombination execution checkpoint (REC) regulates the choice of the homologous recombination pathway used to repair a given DNA double-strand break (DSB) based on the homology status of the DSB ends. If the two DSB ends are synapsed with closely-positioned and correctly-oriented homologous donors, repair proceeds rapidly by the gene conversion (GC) pathway. If, however, homology to only one of the ends is present, or if homologies to the two ends are situated far away from each other or in the wrong orientation, REC blocks the rapid initiation of new DNA synthesis from the synapsed end(s) and repair is carried out by the break-induced replication (BIR) machinery after a long pause. Here we report that the simultaneous deletion of two 3'→5' helicases, Sgs1 and Mph1, largely abolishes the REC-mediated lag normally observed during the repair of large gaps and BIR substrates, which now get repaired nearly as rapidly and efficiently as GC substrates. Deletion of SGS1 and MPH1 also produces a nearly additive increase in the efficiency of both BIR and long gap repair; this increase is epistatic to that seen upon Rad51 overexpression. However, Rad51 overexpression fails to mimic the acceleration in repair kinetics that is produced by sgs1Δ mph1Δ double deletion.

Mating-type Gene Switching in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has two alternative mating types designated MATa and MATα. These are distinguished by about 700 bp of unique sequences, Ya or Yα, including divergent promoter sequences and part of the open reading frames of genes that regulate mating phenotype. Homothallic budding yeast, carrying an active HO endonuclease gene, HO, can switch mating type through a recombination process known as gene conversion, in which a site-specific double-strand break (DSB) created immediately adjacent to the Y region results in replacement of the Y sequences with a copy of the opposite mating type information, which is harbored in one of two heterochromatic donor loci, HMLα or HMRa. HO gene expression is tightly regulated to ensure that only half of the cells in a lineage switch to the opposite MAT allele, thus promoting conjugation and diploid formation. Study of the silencing of these loci has provided a great deal of information about the role of the Sir2 histone deacetylase and its associated Sir3 and Sir4 proteins in creating heterochromatic regions. MAT switching has been examined in great detail to learn about the steps in homologous recombination. MAT switching is remarkably directional, with MATa recombining preferentially with HMLα and MATα using HMRa. Donor preference is controlled by a cis-acting recombination enhancer located near HML. RE is turned off in MATα cells but in MATa binds multiple copies of the Fkh1 transcription factor whose forkhead-associated phosphothreonine binding domain localizes at the DSB, bringing HML into conjunction with MATa.

TOPBP1 takes RADical command in recombinational DNA repair

TOPBP1 is a key player in DNA replication and DNA damage signaling. In this issue, Moudry et al. (2016. J. Cell Biol.http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201507042) uncover a crucial role for TOPBP1 in DNA repair by revealing its requirement for RAD51 loading during repair of double strand breaks by homologous recombination.

Chromosome position determines the success of double-strand break repair

Repair of a chromosomal double-strand break (DSB) by gene conversion depends on the ability of the broken ends to encounter a donor sequence. To understand how chromosomal location of a target sequence affects DSB repair, we took advantage of genome-wide Hi-C analysis of yeast chromosomes to create a series of strains in which an induced site-specific DSB in budding yeast is repaired by a 2-kb donor sequence inserted at different locations. The efficiency of repair, measured by cell viability or competition between each donor and a reference site, showed a strong correlation (r = 0.85 and 0.79) with the contact frequencies of each donor with the DSB repair site. Repair efficiency depends on the distance between donor and recipient rather than any intrinsic limitation of a particular donor site. These results further demonstrate that the search for homology is the rate-limiting step in DSB repair and suggest that cells often fail to repair a DSB because they cannot locate a donor before other, apparently lethal, processes arise. The repair efficiency of a donor locus can be improved by four factors: slower 5' to 3' resection of the DSB ends, increased abundance of replication protein factor A (RPA), longer shared homology, or presence of a recombination enhancer element adjacent to a donor.

DNA polymerases δ and λ cooperate in repairing double-strand breaks by microhomology-mediated end-joining in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Maintenance of genome stability is carried out by a suite of DNA repair pathways that ensure the repair of damaged DNA and faithful replication of the genome. Of particular importance are the repair pathways, which respond to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), and how the efficiency of repair is influenced by sequence homology. In this study, we developed a genetic assay in diploid Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells to analyze DSBs requiring microhomologies for repair, known as microhomology-mediated end-joining (MMEJ). MMEJ repair efficiency increased concomitant with microhomology length and decreased upon introduction of mismatches. The central proteins in homologous recombination (HR), Rad52 and Rad51, suppressed MMEJ in this system, suggesting a competition between HR and MMEJ for the repair of a DSB. Importantly, we found that DNA polymerase delta (Pol δ) is critical for MMEJ, independent of microhomology length and base-pairing continuity. MMEJ recombinants showed evidence that Pol δ proofreading function is active during MMEJ-mediated DSB repair. Furthermore, mutations in Pol δ and DNA polymerase 4 (Pol λ), the DNA polymerase previously implicated in MMEJ, cause a synergistic decrease in MMEJ repair. Pol λ showed faster kinetics associating with MMEJ substrates following DSB induction than Pol δ. The association of Pol δ depended on RAD1, which encodes the flap endonuclease needed to cleave MMEJ intermediates before DNA synthesis. Moreover, Pol δ recruitment was diminished in cells lacking Pol λ. These data suggest cooperative involvement of both polymerases in MMEJ.

Recombinational repair of radiation-induced double-strand breaks occurs in the absence of extensive resection

Recombinational repair provides accurate chromosomal restitution after double-strand break (DSB) induction. While all DSB recombination repair models include 5′-3′ resection, there are no studies that directly assess the resection needed for repair between sister chromatids in G-2 arrested cells of random, radiation-induced ‘dirty’ DSBs. Using our Pulse Field Gel Electrophoresis-shift approach, we determined resection at IR-DSBs in WT and mutants lacking exonuclease1 or Sgs1 helicase. Lack of either reduced resection length by half, without decreased DSB repair or survival. In the exo1Δ sgs1Δ double mutant, resection was barely detectable, yet it only took an additional hour to achieve a level of repair comparable to WT and there was only a 2-fold dose-modifying effect on survival. Results with a Dnl4 deletion strain showed that remaining repair was not due to endjoining. Thus, similar to what has been shown for a single, clean HO-induced DSB, a severe reduction in resection tract length has only a modest effect on repair of multiple, dirty DSBs in G2-arrested cells. Significantly, this study provides the first opportunity to directly relate resection length at DSBs to the capability for global recombination repair between sister chromatids.

Mechanisms and regulation of mitotic recombination in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Homology-dependent exchange of genetic information between DNA molecules has a profound impact on the maintenance of genome integrity by facilitating error-free DNA repair, replication, and chromosome segregation during cell division as well as programmed cell developmental events. This chapter will focus on homologous mitotic recombination in budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. However, there is an important link between mitotic and meiotic recombination (covered in the forthcoming chapter by Hunter et al. 2015) and many of the functions are evolutionarily conserved. Here we will discuss several models that have been proposed to explain the mechanism of mitotic recombination, the genes and proteins involved in various pathways, the genetic and physical assays used to discover and study these genes, and the roles of many of these proteins inside the cell.

Caffeine inhibits gene conversion by displacing Rad51 from ssDNA

Efficient repair of chromosomal double-strand breaks (DSBs) by homologous recombination relies on the formation of a Rad51 recombinase filament that forms on single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) created at DSB ends. This filament facilitates the search for a homologous donor sequence and promotes strand invasion. Recently caffeine treatment has been shown to prevent gene targeting in mammalian cells by increasing non-productive Rad51 interactions between the DSB and random regions of the genome. Here we show that caffeine treatment prevents gene conversion in yeast, independently of its inhibition of the Mec1^ATR/Tel1^ATM-dependent DNA damage response or caffeine's inhibition of 5′ to 3′ resection of DSB ends. Caffeine treatment results in a dosage-dependent eviction of Rad51 from ssDNA. Gene conversion is impaired even at low concentrations of caffeine, where there is no discernible dismantling of the Rad51 filament. Loss of the Rad51 filament integrity is independent of Srs2's Rad51 filament dismantling activity or Rad51's ATPase activity and does not depend on non-specific Rad51 binding to undamaged double-stranded DNA. Caffeine treatment had similar effects on irradiated HeLa cells, promoting loss of previously assembled Rad51 foci. We conclude that caffeine treatment can disrupt gene conversion by disrupting Rad51 filaments.

Recombination occurs within minutes of replication blockage by RTS1 producing restarted forks that are prone to collapse

The completion of genome duplication during the cell cycle is threatened by the presence of replication fork barriers (RFBs). Following collision with a RFB, replication proteins can dissociate from the stalled fork (fork collapse) rendering it incapable of further DNA synthesis unless recombination intervenes to restart replication. We use time-lapse microscopy and genetic assays to show that recombination is initiated within ∼ 10 min of replication fork blockage at a site-specific barrier in fission yeast, leading to a restarted fork within ∼ 60 min, which is only prevented/curtailed by the arrival of the opposing replication fork. The restarted fork is susceptible to further collapse causing hyper-recombination downstream of the barrier. Surprisingly, in our system fork restart is unnecessary for maintaining cell viability. Seemingly, the risk of failing to complete replication prior to mitosis is sufficient to warrant the induction of recombination even though it can cause deleterious genetic change.

RAD54 family translocases counter genotoxic effects of RAD51 in human tumor cells

The RAD54 family DNA translocases have several biochemical activities. One activity, demonstrated previously for the budding yeast translocases, is ATPase-dependent disruption of RAD51-dsDNA binding. This activity is thought to promote dissociation of RAD51 from heteroduplex DNA following strand exchange during homologous recombination. In addition, previous experiments in budding yeast have shown that the same activity of Rad54 removes Rad51 from undamaged sites on chromosomes; mutants lacking Rad54 accumulate nonrepair-associated complexes that can block growth and lead to chromosome loss. Here, we show that human RAD54 also promotes the dissociation of RAD51 from dsDNA and not ssDNA. We also show that translocase depletion in tumor cell lines leads to the accumulation of RAD51 on chromosomes, forming complexes that are not associated with markers of DNA damage. We further show that combined depletion of RAD54L and RAD54B and/or artificial induction of RAD51 overexpression blocks replication and promotes chromosome segregation defects. These results support a model in which RAD54L and RAD54B counteract genome-destabilizing effects of direct binding of RAD51 to dsDNA in human tumor cells. Thus, in addition to having genome-stabilizing DNA repair activity, human RAD51 has genome-destabilizing activity when expressed at high levels, as is the case in many human tumors.