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Solberg T, Wang C, Matsubara R, Wen Z, Nowacki M. Heterochromatin-dependent transcription links the PRC2 complex to small RNA-mediated DNA elimination. EMBO Rep 2025; 26:273-296. [PMID: 39614125 PMCID: PMC11723920 DOI: 10.1038/s44319-024-00332-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2024] [Revised: 11/12/2024] [Accepted: 11/15/2024] [Indexed: 12/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Facultative heterochromatin is marked by the repressive histone modification H3K27me3 in eukaryotes. Deposited by the PRC2 complex, H3K27me3 is essential for regulating gene expression during development, and chromatin bearing this mark is generally considered transcriptionally inert. The PRC2 complex has also been linked to programmed DNA elimination during development in ciliates such as Paramecium. Due to a lack of mechanistic insight, a direct involvement has been questioned as most eliminated DNA segments in Paramecium are shorter than the size of a nucleosome. Here, we identify two sets of histone methylation readers essential for PRC2-mediated DNA elimination in Paramecium: Firefly1/2 and Mayfly1-4. The chromodomain proteins Firefly1/2 act in tight association with TFIIS4, a transcription elongation factor required for noncoding RNA transcription. These noncoding transcripts act as scaffolds for sequence-specific targeting by PIWI-bound sRNAs, resulting in local nucleosome depletion and DNA elimination. Our findings elucidate the molecular mechanism underlying the role of PRC2 in PIWI-mediated DNA elimination and suggest that its role in IES elimination may be to activate rather than repress transcription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Therese Solberg
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 4, 3012, Bern, Switzerland.
- Department of Molecular Biology, Keio University School of Medicine, 160-8582, Tokyo, Japan.
- Human Biology Microbiome Quantum Research Center (WPI-Bio2Q), Keio University, 108-8345, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Chundi Wang
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 4, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
- Institute of Evolution & Marine Biodiversity, Ocean University of China, 266003, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory of Marine Protozoan Biodiversity & Evolution, Marine College, Shandong University, 264209, Weihai, China
| | - Ryuma Matsubara
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 4, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
- Isotope Science Center, The University of Tokyo, 113-0032, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Zhiwei Wen
- Laboratory of Marine Protozoan Biodiversity & Evolution, Marine College, Shandong University, 264209, Weihai, China
| | - Mariusz Nowacki
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 4, 3012, Bern, Switzerland.
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2
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Déléris A, Berger F, Duharcourt S. Role of Polycomb in the control of transposable elements. Trends Genet 2021; 37:882-889. [PMID: 34210514 DOI: 10.1016/j.tig.2021.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
It is generally considered that Polycomb Repressive Complex (PRC)2 deposits the histone mark H3K27me3 on silent protein-coding genes, while transposable elements are repressed by DNA and/or H3K9 methylation. Yet, there is increasing evidence that PRC2 also targets and even silences transposable elements in representatives of several distantly related eukaryotic lineages. In plants and animals, H3K27me3 is present on transposable elements in mutants and specific cell types devoid of DNA methylation. In this Opinion, we summarize the experimental evidence for this phenomenon across the eukaryotic kingdom, and discuss its functional and evolutionary significance. We hypothesize that an ancestral role of Polycomb group (PcG) proteins was to silence transposable elements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angélique Déléris
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Frédéric Berger
- Gregor Mendel Institute (GMI), Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna Biocenter (VBC), Dr. Bohr-Gasse 3, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Sandra Duharcourt
- Université de Paris, CNRS, Institut Jacques Monod, F-75006, Paris, France.
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3
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Xu J, Zhao X, Mao F, Basrur V, Ueberheide B, Chait BT, Allis CD, Taverna SD, Gao S, Wang W, Liu Y. A Polycomb repressive complex is required for RNAi-mediated heterochromatin formation and dynamic distribution of nuclear bodies. Nucleic Acids Res 2021; 49:5407-5425. [PMID: 33412588 PMCID: PMC8191774 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkaa1262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Polycomb group (PcG) proteins are widely utilized for transcriptional repression in eukaryotes. Here, we characterize, in the protist Tetrahymena thermophila, the EZL1 (E(z)-like 1) complex, with components conserved in metazoan Polycomb Repressive Complexes 1 and 2 (PRC1 and PRC2). The EZL1 complex is required for histone H3 K27 and K9 methylation, heterochromatin formation, transposable element control, and programmed genome rearrangement. The EZL1 complex interacts with EMA1, a helicase required for RNA interference (RNAi). This interaction is implicated in co-transcriptional recruitment of the EZL1 complex. Binding of H3K27 and H3K9 methylation by PDD1-another PcG protein interacting with the EZL1 complex-reinforces its chromatin association. The EZL1 complex is an integral part of Polycomb bodies, which exhibit dynamic distribution in Tetrahymena development: Their dispersion is driven by chromatin association, while their coalescence by PDD1, likely via phase separation. Our results provide a molecular mechanism connecting RNAi and Polycomb repression, which coordinately regulate nuclear bodies and reorganize the genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Xu
- School of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Xiaolu Zhao
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Institute of Evolution & Marine Biodiversity, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Fengbiao Mao
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Venkatesha Basrur
- Proteomics Resource Facility, Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Beatrix Ueberheide
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry and Gaseous Ion Chemistry, the Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Brian T Chait
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry and Gaseous Ion Chemistry, the Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - C David Allis
- Laboratory of Chromatin Biology and Epigenetics, the Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Sean D Taverna
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences and the Center for Epigenetics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Shan Gao
- Institute of Evolution & Marine Biodiversity, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Wei Wang
- School of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Yifan Liu
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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4
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Rojas-Pirela M, Andrade-Alviárez D, Rojas V, Kemmerling U, Cáceres AJ, Michels PA, Concepción JL, Quiñones W. Phosphoglycerate kinase: structural aspects and functions, with special emphasis on the enzyme from Kinetoplastea. Open Biol 2020; 10:200302. [PMID: 33234025 PMCID: PMC7729029 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.200302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) is a glycolytic enzyme that is well conserved among the three domains of life. PGK is usually a monomeric enzyme of about 45 kDa that catalyses one of the two ATP-producing reactions in the glycolytic pathway, through the conversion of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPGA) to 3-phosphoglycerate (3PGA). It also participates in gluconeogenesis, catalysing the opposite reaction to produce 1,3BPGA and ADP. Like most other glycolytic enzymes, PGK has also been catalogued as a moonlighting protein, due to its involvement in different functions not associated with energy metabolism, which include pathogenesis, interaction with nucleic acids, tumorigenesis progression, cell death and viral replication. In this review, we have highlighted the overall aspects of this enzyme, such as its structure, reaction kinetics, activity regulation and possible moonlighting functions in different protistan organisms, especially both free-living and parasitic Kinetoplastea. Our analysis of the genomes of different kinetoplastids revealed the presence of open-reading frames (ORFs) for multiple PGK isoforms in several species. Some of these ORFs code for unusually large PGKs. The products appear to contain additional structural domains fused to the PGK domain. A striking aspect is that some of these PGK isoforms are predicted to be catalytically inactive enzymes or ‘dead’ enzymes. The roles of PGKs in kinetoplastid parasites are analysed, and the apparent significance of the PGK gene duplication that gave rise to the different isoforms and their expression in Trypanosoma cruzi is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maura Rojas-Pirela
- Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaiso, Valparaiso 2373223, Chile
| | - Diego Andrade-Alviárez
- Laboratorio de Enzimología de Parásitos, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida 5101, Venezuela
| | - Verónica Rojas
- Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaiso, Valparaiso 2373223, Chile
| | - Ulrike Kemmerling
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Medicina, Santiago de Chile 8380453, Santigo de Chile
| | - Ana J Cáceres
- Laboratorio de Enzimología de Parásitos, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida 5101, Venezuela
| | - Paul A Michels
- Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK.,Centre for Translational and Chemical Biology, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Juan Luis Concepción
- Laboratorio de Enzimología de Parásitos, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida 5101, Venezuela
| | - Wilfredo Quiñones
- Laboratorio de Enzimología de Parásitos, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida 5101, Venezuela
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5
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Allen SE, Nowacki M. Roles of Noncoding RNAs in Ciliate Genome Architecture. J Mol Biol 2020; 432:4186-4198. [PMID: 31926952 PMCID: PMC7374600 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2019.12.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Revised: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Ciliates are an interesting model system for investigating diverse functions of noncoding RNAs, especially in genome defence pathways. During sexual development, the ciliate somatic genome undergoes massive rearrangement and reduction through removal of transposable elements and other repetitive DNA. This is guided by a multitude of noncoding RNAs of different sizes and functions, the extent of which is only recently becoming clear. The genome rearrangement pathways evolved as a defence against parasitic DNA, but interestingly also use the transposable elements and transposases to execute their own removal. Thus, ciliates are also a good model for the coevolution of host and transposable element, and the mutual dependence between the two. In this review, we summarise the genome rearrangement pathways in three diverse species of ciliate, with focus on recent discoveries and the roles of noncoding RNAs. Ciliate genomes undergo massive rearrangement and reduction during development. Transposon elimination is guided by small RNAs and carried out by transposases. New pathways for noncoding RNA production have recently been discovered in ciliates. Diverse ciliate species have different mechanisms for RNA-guided genome remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Allen
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Switzerland
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6
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Ichiyanagi K, Saito K. TE studies in Japan: the fourth Japanese meeting on host-transposon interactions. Mob DNA 2019; 10:11. [PMID: 30923579 PMCID: PMC6419827 DOI: 10.1186/s13100-019-0154-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The fourth Japanese meeting entitled “Biological Function and Evolution through Interactions between Hosts and Transposable Elements (TEs)” was held on August 20–21, 2018 at the National Institute of Genetics (NIG), Mishima, Japan. The meeting was supported by NIG, and its objective was to bring together researchers who study the diverse roles of TEs in genome evolution, as well as host defense systems against TE mobility, such as chromatin modifications, small RNAs, and others. Here, we present the highlights of the talks given by 14 invited speakers. Organizers: Kenji Ichiyanagi (chief), Kuniaki Saito, and Tetsuji Kakutani.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Ichiyanagi
- 1Laboratory of Genome and Epigenome Dynamics, Department of Animal Sciences, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8601 Japan
| | - Kuniaki Saito
- 2Invertebrate Genetics Laboratory, National Institute of Genetics, Yata 1111, Mishima, Shizuoka, 411-8540 Japan
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Noto T, Mochizuki K. Whats, hows and whys of programmed DNA elimination in Tetrahymena. Open Biol 2018; 7:rsob.170172. [PMID: 29021213 PMCID: PMC5666084 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.170172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Programmed genome rearrangements in ciliates provide fascinating examples of flexible epigenetic genome regulations and important insights into the interaction between transposable elements (TEs) and host genomes. DNA elimination in Tetrahymena thermophila removes approximately 12 000 internal eliminated sequences (IESs), which correspond to one-third of the genome, when the somatic macronucleus (MAC) differentiates from the germline micronucleus (MIC). More than half of the IESs, many of which show high similarity to TEs, are targeted for elimination in cis by the small RNA-mediated genome comparison of the MIC to the MAC. Other IESs are targeted for elimination in trans by the same small RNAs through repetitive sequences. Furthermore, the small RNA–heterochromatin feedback loop ensures robust DNA elimination. Here, we review an updated picture of the DNA elimination mechanism, discuss the physiological and evolutionary roles of DNA elimination, and outline the key questions that remain unanswered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Noto
- Institute of Human Genetics, UMR 9002, CNRS and University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Kazufumi Mochizuki
- Institute of Human Genetics, UMR 9002, CNRS and University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
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8
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Cheng CY, Young JM, Lin CYG, Chao JL, Malik HS, Yao MC. The piggyBac transposon-derived genes TPB1 and TPB6 mediate essential transposon-like excision during the developmental rearrangement of key genes in Tetrahymena thermophila. Genes Dev 2017; 30:2724-2736. [PMID: 28087716 PMCID: PMC5238731 DOI: 10.1101/gad.290460.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Here, Cheng et al. present data from Tetrahymena that highlight a division of labor among ciliate piggyBac-derived genes, which carry out mutually exclusive categories of excision events mediated by either transposon-like features or RNA-directed heterochromatin. Ciliated protozoans perform extreme forms of programmed somatic DNA rearrangement during development. The model ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila removes 34% of its germline micronuclear genome from somatic macronuclei by excising thousands of internal eliminated sequences (IESs), a process that shares features with transposon excision. Indeed, piggyBac transposon-derived genes are necessary for genome-wide IES excision in both Tetrahymena (TPB2 [Tetrahymena piggyBac-like 2] and LIA5) and Paramecium tetraurelia (PiggyMac). T. thermophila has at least three other piggyBac-derived genes: TPB1, TPB6, and TPB7. Here, we show that TPB1 and TPB6 excise a small, distinct set of 12 unusual IESs that disrupt exons. TPB1-deficient cells complete mating, but their progeny exhibit slow growth, giant vacuoles, and osmotic shock sensitivity due to retention of an IES in the vacuolar gene DOP1 (Dopey domain-containing protein). Unlike most IESs, TPB1-dependent IESs have piggyBac-like terminal inverted motifs that are necessary for excision. Transposon-like excision mediated by TPB1 and TPB6 provides direct evidence for a transposon origin of not only IES excision machinery but also IESs themselves. Our study highlights a division of labor among ciliate piggyBac-derived genes, which carry out mutually exclusive categories of excision events mediated by either transposon-like features or RNA-directed heterochromatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao-Yin Cheng
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Janet M Young
- Division of Basic Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA
| | - Chih-Yi Gabriela Lin
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan.,Genome and Systems Biology Degree Program, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Ju-Lan Chao
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Harmit S Malik
- Division of Basic Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA
| | - Meng-Chao Yao
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
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9
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Farley BM, Collins K. Transgenerational function of Tetrahymena Piwi protein Twi8p at distinctive noncoding RNA loci. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2017; 23:530-545. [PMID: 28053272 PMCID: PMC5340916 DOI: 10.1261/rna.060012.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2016] [Accepted: 12/29/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Transgenerational transmission of genome-regulatory epigenetic information can determine phenotypes in the progeny of sexual reproduction. Sequence specificity of transgenerational regulation derives from small RNAs assembled into Piwi-protein complexes. Known targets of transgenerational regulation are primarily transposons and transposon-derived sequences. Here, we extend the scope of Piwi-mediated transgenerational regulation to include unique noncoding RNA loci. Ciliates such as Tetrahymena have a phenotypically silent germline micronucleus and an expressed somatic macronucleus, which is differentiated anew from a germline genome copy in sexual reproduction. We show that the nuclear-localized Tetrahymena Piwi protein Twi8p shuttles from parental to zygotic macronuclei. Genetic elimination of Twi8p has no phenotype for cells in asexual growth. On the other hand, cells lacking Twi8p arrest in sexual reproduction with zygotic nuclei that retain the germline genome structure, without the DNA elimination and fragmentation required to generate a functional macronucleus. Twi8p-bound small RNAs originate from long-noncoding RNAs with a terminal hairpin, which become detectable in the absence of Twi8p. Curiously, the loci that generate Twi8p-bound small RNAs are essential for asexual cell growth, even though Twi8 RNPs are essential only in sexual reproduction. Our findings suggest the model that Twi8 RNPs act on silent germline chromosomes to permit their conversion to expressed macronuclear chromosomes. Overall this work reveals that a Piwi protein carrying small RNAs from long-noncoding RNA loci has transgenerational function in establishing zygotic nucleus competence for gene expression.
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MESH Headings
- Argonaute Proteins/genetics
- Argonaute Proteins/metabolism
- Chromosomes
- DNA, Protozoan/genetics
- DNA, Protozoan/metabolism
- Gene Rearrangement
- Genome, Protozoan
- Macronucleus/genetics
- Macronucleus/metabolism
- Micronucleus, Germline/genetics
- Micronucleus, Germline/metabolism
- Protozoan Proteins/genetics
- Protozoan Proteins/metabolism
- RNA, Protozoan/genetics
- RNA, Protozoan/metabolism
- RNA, Small Interfering/genetics
- RNA, Small Interfering/metabolism
- Reproduction, Asexual/genetics
- Tetrahymena/genetics
- Tetrahymena/growth & development
- Tetrahymena/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian M Farley
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720-3202, USA
| | - Kathleen Collins
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720-3202, USA
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Kataoka K, Mochizuki K. Heterochromatin aggregation during DNA elimination in Tetrahymena is facilitated by a prion-like protein. J Cell Sci 2016; 130:480-489. [PMID: 27909245 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.195503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulated aggregations of prion and prion-like proteins play physiological roles in various biological processes. However, their structural roles in the nucleus are poorly understood. Here, we show that the prion-like protein Jub6p is involved in the regulation of chromatin structure in the ciliated protozoan Tetrahymena thermophila Jub6p forms sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-resistant aggregates when it is ectopically expressed in vegetative cells and binds to RNA in vitro Jub6p is a heterochromatin component and is important for the formation of heterochromatin bodies during the process of programmed DNA elimination. We suggest that RNA-protein aggregates formed by Jub6p are an essential architectural component for the assembly of heterochromatin bodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kensuke Kataoka
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr Bohr-Gasse 3, Vienna A-1030, Austria
| | - Kazufumi Mochizuki
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr Bohr-Gasse 3, Vienna A-1030, Austria .,Institute of Human Genetics (IGH), CNRS UPR1142, 141 rue de la Cardonille, Montpellier Cedex 5 34396, France
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