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Abstract
Retinoic acid (RA) was identified as the biologically active form of vitamin A almost 70 years ago and work on its function and mechanism of action is still of major interest both from a scientific and a clinical perspective. The currently accepted model postulates that RA is produced in two sequential oxidative steps: first, retinol is oxidized reversibly to retinaldehyde, and then retinaldehyde is oxidized irreversibly to RA. Excess RA is inactivated by conversion to hydroxylated derivatives. Much is left to learn, especially about retinoid binding proteins and the trafficking of the hydrophobic retinoid substrates between membrane bound and cytosolic enzymes. Here, background on development of the field and an update on recent advances in our understanding of the enzymatic pathways and mechanisms that control the rate of RA production and degradation are presented with a focus on the many questions that remain unanswered.
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Ross AC, Zolfaghari R. Cytochrome P450s in the regulation of cellular retinoic acid metabolism. Annu Rev Nutr 2011; 31:65-87. [PMID: 21529158 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-nutr-072610-145127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The active metabolite of vitamin A, retinoic acid (RA), is a powerful regulator of gene transcription. RA is also a therapeutic drug. The oxidative metabolism of RA by certain members of the cytochrome P450 (CYP) superfamily helps to maintain tissue RA concentrations within appropriate bounds. The CYP26 family--CYP26A1, CYP26B1, and CYP26C1--is distinguished by being both regulated by and active toward all-trans-RA (at-RA) while being expressed in different tissue-specific patterns. The CYP26A1 gene is regulated by multiple RA response elements. CYP26A1 is essential for embryonic development, whereas CYP26B1 is essential for postnatal survival as well as germ cell development. Enzyme kinetic studies have demonstrated that several CYP proteins are capable of metabolizing at-RA; however, it is likely that CYP26A1 plays a major role in RA clearance. Thus, pharmacological approaches to limiting the activity of CYP26 enzymes may extend the half-life of RA and could be useful clinically in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Catharine Ross
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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Sagha M, Karbalaie K, Tanhaee S, Esfandiari E, Salehi H, Sadeghi-Aliabadi H, Razavi S, Nasr-Esfahani MH, Baharvand H. Neural Induction in Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells by Co-Culturing With Chicken Somites. Stem Cells Dev 2009; 18:1351-60. [DOI: 10.1089/scd.2008.0341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mohsen Sagha
- Department of Stem Cells, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute, Esfahan Campus, Iranian Academic Center for Education, Culture, and Research (ACECR), Esfahan, Iran
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Esfahan University of Medical Sciences, Esfahan, Iran
| | - Khadijeh Karbalaie
- Department of Stem Cells, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute, Esfahan Campus, Iranian Academic Center for Education, Culture, and Research (ACECR), Esfahan, Iran
| | - Somaieh Tanhaee
- Department of Stem Cells, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute, Esfahan Campus, Iranian Academic Center for Education, Culture, and Research (ACECR), Esfahan, Iran
| | - Ebrahim Esfandiari
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Esfahan University of Medical Sciences, Esfahan, Iran
| | - Hossein Salehi
- Department of Stem Cells, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute, Esfahan Campus, Iranian Academic Center for Education, Culture, and Research (ACECR), Esfahan, Iran
| | - Hojjat Sadeghi-Aliabadi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy and Esfahan Pharmaceutical Research Center, Esfahan University of Medical Sciences, Esfahan, Iran
| | - Shahnaz Razavi
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Esfahan University of Medical Sciences, Esfahan, Iran
| | - Mohammad Hossein Nasr-Esfahani
- Department of Stem Cells, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute, Esfahan Campus, Iranian Academic Center for Education, Culture, and Research (ACECR), Esfahan, Iran
| | - Hossein Baharvand
- Department of Stem Cells, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute, Esfahan Campus, Iranian Academic Center for Education, Culture, and Research (ACECR), Esfahan, Iran
- Department of Developmental Biology, University of Science and Culture, Iranian Academic Center for Education, Culture, and Research (ACECR), Tehran, Iran
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Bhat PV, Sundaresan PR. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography of Vitamin A Compounds. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1080/00078988808048812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Chithalen JV, Luu L, Petkovich M, Jones G. HPLC-MS/MS analysis of the products generated from all-trans-retinoic acid using recombinant human CYP26A. J Lipid Res 2002; 43:1133-42. [PMID: 12091498 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m100343-jlr200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Two mammalian hCYP26A expression systems have been used to analyze the metabolic products of CYP26A. Through the use of extensive HPLC, UV spectroscopy, and liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methodology, we have conclusively demonstrated that the complex mixture of products comprises 4-OH-all-trans-retinoic acid, 4-oxo-all-trans-retinoic acid, and 18-OH-all-trans-retinoic acid, and more polar products, partially identified as dihydroxy and mono-oxo, mono-hydroxy derivatives. These more polar products are presumed to result from multiple hydroxylations on the beta-ionone ring. The inter-relationship of initial and polar metabolites was inferred from both gene-dose and time-course experiments. Both initial and secondary metabolic steps after 4-oxo-all-trans-retinoic acid are ketoconazole-sensitive, suggesting that steps in the production of water-soluble metabolites are cytochrome P450-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- James V Chithalen
- Department of Biochemistry, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, K7L 3N6, Canada
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Barili PL, Berti G, Mastrorilli E. Regio- and stereochemistry of the acid catalyzed and of a highly enantioselective enzymatic hydrolysis of some epoxytetrahydrofurans. Tetrahedron 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4020(01)87964-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Satre MA, Penner JD, Kochhar DM. Pharmacokinetic assessment of teratologically effective concentrations of an endogenous retinoic acid metabolite. TERATOLOGY 1989; 39:341-8. [PMID: 2749577 DOI: 10.1002/tera.1420390406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Retinoic acid is a natural vitamin A derivative that undergoes oxidative metabolism in the body to yield several metabolites, which apparently represent the products of a detoxification pathway. To assess if such metabolic conversions diminished teratogenic potency, one of the major metabolites (4-oxo-all-trans-retinoic acid) was tested for its teratogenic activity in pregnant ICR mice and further investigated for its pharmacokinetic features to determine if it accumulated in the embryo in concentrations sufficient to elicit a teratogenic response. Administration of single oral doses (10, 25, 50, or 100 mg/kg) of the compound to ICR mice on day 11 of gestation (plug day = day 0) produced dose-dependent frequencies of serious fetal anomalies of the type usually associated with the use of retinoic acid and other retinoids. The metabolite was equivalent in teratogenic potency to retinoic acid, and, in the instance of cleft palate frequency, it was even more active. Concentrations of 4-oxo-all-trans-retinoic acid and its 13-cis isomer were measured in the maternal plasma and whole embryos at 30 min to 10 hr after administration of the lowest (10 mg/kg) and the highest (100 mg/kg) teratogenic dose of 4-oxo-all-trans-retinoic acid by means of high-performance liquid chromatography methodology. Distribution of the compound in the maternal system and transfer to the embryo occurred rapidly with either dose. Peak concentration in the maternal plasma and the embryo persisted for 3-4 hr after the higher dose but not with the lower dose; however, elimination kinetics for the two dose levels were similar.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Satre
- Department of Anatomy, Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107
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Samokyszyn VM, Marnett LJ. Hydroperoxide-dependent cooxidation of 13-cis-retinoic acid by prostaglandin H synthase. J Biol Chem 1987. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)47913-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Yakovleva IM, Vakulova LA, Samokhvalov GI. Metabolism of vitamin A, structure and synthesis of metabolites, and their biological activity (Review). Pharm Chem J 1984. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00760699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Sietsema WK, DeLuca HF. Retinoic acid 5,6-epoxidase. Properties and biological significance. J Biol Chem 1982. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)34716-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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DeLuca HF, Zile M, Sietsema WK. The metabolism of retinoic acid to 5,6-epoxyretinoic acid, retinoyl-beta-glucuronide, and other polar metabolites. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1981; 359:25-36. [PMID: 6942675 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1981.tb12734.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A description of the enzyme that produces 5,6-epoxyretinoic acid from all-trans-retinoic acid has been presented. This enzyme system is found in highest concentrations in the kidney followed by intestine, liver and spleen. The enzyme requires molecular oxygen, magnesium ions, ATP, and NADPH. In the kidney, it is found in the mitochondrial and microsomal fractions and has a Michaelis constant of 3.2 X 10(-6) M and 3.7 X 10(-6) M for 13-cis and all-trans-retinoic acid, respectively. The resultant product, 5,6-epoxyretinoic acid, has minimal activity in supporting growth of vitamin A-deficient rats, its activity estimated to be 0.5% that of retinoic acid. An investigation of the biliary excretion products of tritiated retinoic acid has revealed several unknown metabolites. A glucuronidase sensitive metabolite from these products has been isolated and identified as retinoyl-beta-glucuronide by ultraviolet absorption spectrometry and mass spectrometry. The retinoyl-beta-glucuronide originally discovered by Olson and collaborators accounts for only 12% of the total excreted biliary products of retinoic acid. At least four to six major unknown retinoic acid metabolites, in addition to retinoyl-beta-glucuronide, have been detected and will shortly be identified.
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Frolik C, Roller P, Roberts A, Sporn M. In vitro and in vivo metabolism of all-trans- and 13-cis-retinoic acid in hamsters. Identification of 13-cis-4-oxoretinoic acid. J Biol Chem 1980. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)70606-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Vahlquist A. The identification of dehydroretinol (vitamin A2) in human skin. EXPERIENTIA 1980; 36:317-8. [PMID: 7371787 DOI: 10.1007/bf01952299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Vitamin A2 has for the first time been identified in a human tissue and, in contrast to vitamin A1, its concentration in the epidermis is markedly increased in a hyperkeratotic condition (Psoriasis vulgaris).
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McCormick AM, Napoli JL, Yoshizawa S, DeLuca HF. 5,6-epoxyretinoic acid is a physiological metabolite of retinoic acid in the rat. Biochem J 1980; 186:475-81. [PMID: 7378063 PMCID: PMC1161599 DOI: 10.1042/bj1860475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
5,6-Epoxyretinoic acid was detected in small intestine, kidney, liver, testes and serum of vitamin A-deficient rats 3 h after a single physiological dose of [3H]retinoic acid. The maximum concentration of 5,6-epoxide in intestinal mucosa was observed 3 h after intrajugular administration of retinoic acid. However, at 7 h post administration, no 5,6-epoxyretinoic acid was detected in mucosa, demonstrating the rapid intestinal metabolism or excretion of this metabolite. No 5,6-epoxy[3H]retinoic acid was detected in mucosa, liver or serum of retinoic acid-repleted rats 3 h after administration of 2 micrograms of [3H]retinoic acid.
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Mode of action of retinol. Involvement in glycosylation reactions of cultured mouse epidermal cells. J Biol Chem 1979. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)50756-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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Vitamin A, tumor initiation and tumor promotion. Nutr Rev 1979; 37:153-6. [PMID: 386178 DOI: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.1979.tb06657.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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Wertz PW, Kensler TW, Mueller GC, Verma AK, Boutwell RK. 5,6-epoxyretinoic acid opposes the effects of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate in bovine lymphocytes. Nature 1979; 277:227-9. [PMID: 551250 DOI: 10.1038/277227a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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