Single channel characterization of the mitochondrial ryanodine receptor in heart mitoplasts

Mitochondrial classic metabolism and its often-underappreciated facets

For many decades, mitochondria were essentially regarded as the main providers of the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) required to maintain the viability and function of eukaryotic cells, thus the widely popular metaphor "powerhouses of the cell". Besides ATP generation - via intermediary metabolism - these intracellular organelles have also traditionally been known, albeit to a lesser degree, for their notable role in biosynthesis, both as generators of biosynthetic intermediates and/or as the sites of biosynthesis. From the 1990s onwards, the concept of mitochondria as passive organelles providing the rest of the cell, from which they were otherwise isolated, with ATP and biomolecules on an on-demand basis has been challenged by a series of paradigm-shifting discoveries. Namely, it was shown that mitochondria act as signaling effectors to upregulate ATP generation in response to growth-promoting stimuli and are actively engaged, through signaling and epigenetics, in the regulation of a plethora of cellular processes, ultimately deciding cell function and fate. With the focus of mitochondrial research increasingly placed in these "non-classical" functions, the centrality of mitochondrial intermediary metabolism to other mitochondrial functions tends to be overlooked. In this article, we revisit mitochondrial intermediary metabolism and illustrate how its intermediates, by-products and molecular machinery underpin other mitochondrial functions. A certain emphasis is given to frequently overlooked mitochondrial functions, namely the biosynthesis of iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters, the only known function shared by all mitochondria and mitochondrion-related organelles. The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and their putative role in signaling is also discussed in detail.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Cardiac Arrhythmias

Electrophysiological and structural disruptions in cardiac arrhythmias are closely related to mitochondrial dysfunction. Mitochondria are an organelle generating ATP, thereby satisfying the energy demand of the incessant electrical activity in the heart. In arrhythmias, the homeostatic supply-demand relationship is impaired, which is often accompanied by progressive mitochondrial dysfunction leading to reduced ATP production and elevated reactive oxidative species generation. Furthermore, ion homeostasis, membrane excitability, and cardiac structure can be disrupted through pathological changes in gap junctions and inflammatory signaling, which results in impaired cardiac electrical homeostasis. Herein, we review the electrical and molecular mechanisms of cardiac arrhythmias, with a particular focus on mitochondrial dysfunction in ionic regulation and gap junction action. We provide an update on inherited and acquired mitochondrial dysfunction to explore the pathophysiology of different types of arrhythmias. In addition, we highlight the role of mitochondria in bradyarrhythmia, including sinus node dysfunction and atrioventricular node dysfunction. Finally, we discuss how confounding factors, such as aging, gut microbiome, cardiac reperfusion injury, and electrical stimulation, modulate mitochondrial function and cause tachyarrhythmia.

Excitation-contraction coupling in mammalian skeletal muscle: Blending old and last-decade research

The excitation–contraction coupling (ECC) in skeletal muscle refers to the Ca²⁺-mediated link between the membrane excitation and the mechanical contraction. The initiation and propagation of an action potential through the membranous system of the sarcolemma and the tubular network lead to the activation of the Ca²⁺-release units (CRU): tightly coupled dihydropyridine and ryanodine (RyR) receptors. The RyR gating allows a rapid, massive, and highly regulated release of Ca²⁺ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). The release from triadic places generates a sarcomeric gradient of Ca²⁺ concentrations ([Ca²⁺]) depending on the distance of a subcellular region from the CRU. Upon release, the diffusing Ca²⁺ has multiple fates: binds to troponin C thus activating the contractile machinery, binds to classical sarcoplasmic Ca²⁺ buffers such as parvalbumin, adenosine triphosphate and, experimentally, fluorescent dyes, enters the mitochondria and the SR, or is recycled through the Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger and store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE) mechanisms. To commemorate the 7^th decade after being coined, we comprehensively and critically reviewed “old”, historical landmarks and well-established concepts, and blended them with recent advances to have a complete, quantitative-focused landscape of the ECC. We discuss the: 1) elucidation of the CRU structures at near-atomic resolution and its implications for functional coupling; 2) reliable quantification of peak sarcoplasmic [Ca²⁺] using fast, low affinity Ca²⁺ dyes and the relative contributions of the Ca²⁺-binding mechanisms to the whole concert of Ca²⁺ fluxes inside the fibre; 3) articulation of this novel quantitative information with the unveiled structural details of the molecular machinery involved in mitochondrial Ca²⁺ handing to understand how and how much Ca²⁺ enters the mitochondria; 4) presence of the SOCE machinery and its different modes of activation, which awaits understanding of its magnitude and relevance in situ; 5) pharmacology of the ECC, and 6) emerging topics such as the use and potential applications of super-resolution and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) in ECC. Blending the old with the new works better!

Mitochondrial calcium exchange in physiology and disease

The uptake of calcium into and extrusion of calcium from the mitochondrial matrix is a fundamental biological process that has critical effects on cellular metabolism, signaling, and survival. Disruption of mitochondrial calcium (mCa2+) cycling is implicated in numerous acquired diseases such as heart failure, stroke, neurodegeneration, diabetes, and cancer and is genetically linked to several inherited neuromuscular disorders. Understanding the mechanisms responsible for mCa2+ exchange therefore holds great promise for the treatment of these diseases. The past decade has seen the genetic identification of many of the key proteins that mediate mitochondrial calcium uptake and efflux. Here, we present an overview of the phenomenon of mCa2+ transport and a comprehensive examination of the molecular machinery that mediates calcium flux across the inner mitochondrial membrane: the mitochondrial uniporter complex (consisting of MCU, EMRE, MICU1, MICU2, MICU3, MCUB, and MCUR1), NCLX, LETM1, the mitochondrial ryanodine receptor, and the mitochondrial permeability transition pore. We then consider the physiological implications of mCa2+ flux and evaluate how alterations in mCa2+ homeostasis contribute to human disease. This review concludes by highlighting opportunities and challenges for therapeutic intervention in pathologies characterized by aberrant mCa2+ handling and by summarizing critical unanswered questions regarding the biology of mCa2+ flux.

Methods of Measuring Mitochondrial Potassium Channels: A Critical Assessment

In this paper, the techniques used to study the function of mitochondrial potassium channels are critically reviewed. The majority of these techniques have been known for many years as a result of research on plasma membrane ion channels. Hence, in this review, we focus on the critical evaluation of techniques used in the studies of mitochondrial potassium channels, describing their advantages and limitations. Functional analysis of mitochondrial potassium channels in comparison to that of plasmalemmal channels presents additional experimental challenges. The reliability of functional studies of mitochondrial potassium channels is often affected by the need to isolate mitochondria and by functional properties of mitochondria such as respiration, metabolic activity, swelling capacity, or high electrical potential. Three types of techniques are critically evaluated: electrophysiological techniques, potassium flux measurements, and biochemical techniques related to potassium flux measurements. Finally, new possible approaches to the study of the function of mitochondrial potassium channels are presented. We hope that this review will assist researchers in selecting reliable methods for studying, e.g., the effects of drugs on mitochondrial potassium channel function. Additionally, this review should aid in the critical evaluation of the results reported in various articles on mitochondrial potassium channels.

Targeting mitochondrial ion channels for cancer therapy

Pharmacological targeting of mitochondrial ion channels is emerging as a promising approach to eliminate cancer cells; as most of these channels are differentially expressed and/or regulated in cancer cells in comparison to healthy ones, this strategy may selectively eliminate the former. Perturbation of ion fluxes across the outer and inner membranes is linked to alterations of redox state, membrane potential and bioenergetic efficiency. This leads to indirect modulation of oxidative phosphorylation, which is/may be fundamental for both cancer and cancer stem cell survival. Furthermore, given the crucial contribution of mitochondria to intrinsic apoptosis, modulation of their ion channels leading to cytochrome c release may be of great advantage in case of resistance to drugs triggering apoptotic events upstream of the mitochondrial phase. In the present review, we give an overview of the known mitochondrial ion channels and of their modulators capable of killing cancer cells. In addition, we discuss state-of-the-art strategies using mitochondriotropic drugs or peptide-based approaches allowing a more efficient and selective targeting of mitochondrial ion channel-linked events.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria communication; implications for cardiac arrhythmia

Sudden cardiac death due to ventricular tachyarrhythmias remains the major cause of mortality in the world. Heart failure, diabetic cardiomyopathy, old age-related cardiac dysfunction and inherited disorders are associated with enhanced propensity to malignant cardiac arrhythmias. Both defective mitochondrial function and abnormal intracellular Ca²⁺ homeostasis have been established as the key contributing factors in the pathophysiology and arrhythmogenesis in these conditions. This article reviews current advances in understanding of bidirectional control of ryanodine receptor-mediated sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ release and mitochondrial function, and how defects in crosstalk between these two organelles increase arrhythmic risk in cardiac disease.

Regulation of Mitochondrial Ca2+ Uptake

Mitochondria are responsible for ATP production but are also known as regulators of cell death, and mitochondrial matrix Ca2+ is a key modulator of both ATP production and cell death. Although mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake and efflux have been studied for over 50 years, it is only in the past decade that the proteins responsible for mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake and efflux have been identified. The identification of the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter (MCU) led to an explosion of studies identifying regulators of the MCU. The levels of these regulators vary in a tissue- and disease-specific manner, providing new insight into how mitochondrial Ca2+ is regulated. This review focuses on the proteins responsible for mitochondrial transport and what we have learned from mouse studies with genetic alterations in these proteins.

Redox Signaling from Mitochondria: Signal Propagation and Its Targets

Progress in mass spectroscopy of posttranslational oxidative modifications has enabled researchers to experimentally verify the concept of redox signaling. We focus here on redox signaling originating from mitochondria under physiological situations, discussing mechanisms of transient redox burst in mitochondria, as well as the possible ways to transfer such redox signals to specific extramitochondrial targets. A role of peroxiredoxins is described which enables redox relay to other targets. Examples of mitochondrial redox signaling are discussed: initiation of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) responses; retrograde redox signaling to PGC1α during exercise in skeletal muscle; redox signaling in innate immune cells; redox stimulation of insulin secretion, and other physiological situations.

Role of mitochondrial Ca2+ homeostasis in cardiac muscles

Recent discoveries of the molecular identity of mitochondrial Ca2+ influx/efflux mechanisms have placed mitochondrial Ca2+ transport at center stage in views of cellular regulation in various cell-types/tissues. Indeed, mitochondria in cardiac muscles also possess the molecular components for efficient uptake and extraction of Ca2+. Over the last several years, multiple groups have taken advantage of newly available molecular information about these proteins and applied genetic tools to delineate the precise mechanisms for mitochondrial Ca2+ handling in cardiomyocytes and its contribution to excitation-contraction/metabolism coupling in the heart. Though mitochondrial Ca2+ has been proposed as one of the most crucial secondary messengers in controlling a cardiomyocyte's life and death, the detailed mechanisms of how mitochondrial Ca2+ regulates physiological mitochondrial and cellular functions in cardiac muscles, and how disorders of this mechanism lead to cardiac diseases remain unclear. In this review, we summarize the current controversies and discrepancies regarding cardiac mitochondrial Ca2+ signaling that remain in the field to provide a platform for future discussions and experiments to help close this gap.

Slow Ca2+ Efflux by Ca2+/H+ Exchange in Cardiac Mitochondria Is Modulated by Ca2+ Re-uptake via MCU, Extra-Mitochondrial pH, and H+ Pumping by FOF1-ATPase

Mitochondrial (m) Ca²⁺ influx is largely dependent on membrane potential (ΔΨ_m), whereas mCa²⁺ efflux occurs primarily via Ca²⁺ ion exchangers. We probed the kinetics of Ca²⁺/H⁺ exchange (CHE_m) in guinea pig cardiac muscle mitochondria. We tested if net mCa²⁺ flux is altered during a matrix inward H⁺ leak that is dependent on matrix H⁺ pumping by ATP_m hydrolysis at complex V (F_OF₁-ATPase). We measured [Ca²⁺]_m, extra-mitochondrial (e) [Ca²⁺]_e, ΔΨ_m, pH_m, pH_e, NADH, respiration, ADP/ATP ratios, and total [ATP]_m in the presence or absence of protonophore dinitrophenol (DNP), mitochondrial uniporter (MCU) blocker Ru360, and complex V blocker oligomycin (OMN). We proposed that net slow influx/efflux of Ca²⁺ after adding DNP and CaCl₂ is dependent on whether the ΔpH_m gradient is/is not maintained by reciprocal outward H⁺ pumping by complex V. We found that adding CaCl₂ enhanced DNP-induced increases in respiration and decreases in ΔΨ_m while [ATP]_m decreased, ΔpH_m gradient was maintained, and [Ca²⁺]_m continued to increase slowly, indicating net mCa²⁺ influx via MCU. In contrast, with complex V blocked by OMN, adding DNP and CaCl₂ caused larger declines in ΔΨ_m as well as a slow fall in pH_m to near pH_e while [Ca²⁺]_m continued to decrease slowly, indicating net mCa²⁺ efflux in exchange for H⁺ influx (CHE_m) until the ΔpH_m gradient was abolished. The kinetics of slow mCa²⁺ efflux with slow H⁺ influx via CHE_m was also observed at pH_e 6.9 vs. 7.6 by the slow fall in pH_m until ΔpH_m was abolished; if Ca²⁺ reuptake via the MCU was also blocked, mCa²⁺ efflux via CHE_m became more evident. Of the two components of the proton electrochemical gradient, our results indicate that CHE_m activity is driven largely by the ΔpH_m chemical gradient with H⁺ leak, while mCa²⁺ entry via MCU depends largely on the charge gradient ΔΨ_m. A fall in ΔΨ_m with excess mCa²⁺ loading can occur during cardiac cell stress. Cardiac cell injury due to mCa²⁺ overload may be reduced by temporarily inhibiting F_OF₁-ATPase from pumping H⁺ due to ΔΨ_m depolarization. This action would prevent additional slow mCa²⁺ loading via MCU and permit activation of CHE_m to mediate efflux of mCa²⁺.

HIGHLIGHTS-

We examined how slow mitochondrial (m) Ca²⁺ efflux via Ca²⁺/H⁺ exchange (CHE_m) is triggered by matrix acidity after a rapid increase in [Ca²⁺]_m by adding CaCl₂ in the presence of dinitrophenol (DNP) to permit H⁺ influx, and oligomycin (OMN) to block H⁺ pumping via F_OF₁-ATP synthase/ase (complex V).

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Declines in ΔΨ_m and pH_m after DNP and added CaCl₂ were larger when complex V was blocked.

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[Ca²⁺]_m slowly increased despite a fall in ΔΨ_m but maintained pH_m when H⁺ pumping by complex V was permitted.

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[Ca²⁺]_m slowly decreased and external [Ca²⁺]_e increased with declines in both ΔΨ_m and pH_m when complex V was blocked.

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ATP_m hydrolysis supports a falling pH_m and redox state and promotes a slow increase in [Ca²⁺]_m.

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After rapid Ca²⁺ influx due to a bolus of CaCl₂, slow mCa²⁺ efflux by CHE_m occurs directly if pH_e is low.

Why don't mice lacking the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter experience an energy crisis?

Current dogma holds that the heart balances energy demand and supply effectively and sustainably by sequestering enough Ca²⁺ into mitochondria during heartbeats to stimulate metabolic enzymes in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and electron transport chain (ETC). This process is called excitation-contraction-bioenergetics (ECB) coupling. Recent breakthroughs in identifying the mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uniporter (MCU) and its associated proteins have opened up new windows for interrogating the molecular mechanisms of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ homeostasis regulation and its role in ECB coupling. Despite remarkable progress made in the past 7 years, it has been surprising, almost disappointing, that germline MCU deficiency in mice with certain genetic background yields viable pups, and knockout of the MCU in adult heart does not cause lethality. Moreover, MCU deficiency results in few adverse phenotypes, normal performance, and preserved bioenergetics in the heart at baseline. In this review, we briefly assess the existing literature on mitochondrial Ca²⁺ homeostasis regulation and then we consider possible explanations for why MCU-deficient mice are spared from energy crises under physiological conditions. We propose that MCU and/or mitochondrial Ca²⁺ may have limited ability to set ECB coupling, that other mitochondrial Ca²⁺ handling mechanisms may play a role, and that extra-mitochondrial Ca²⁺ may regulate ECB coupling. Since the heart needs to regenerate a significant amount of ATP to assure the perpetuation of heartbeats, multiple mechanisms are likely to work in concert to match energy supply with demand.

The Mitochondrial Ca2+ Uniporter: Structure, Function, and Pharmacology

Mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake is crucial for an array of cellular functions while an imbalance can elicit cell death. In this chapter, we briefly reviewed the various modes of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake and our current understanding of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ homeostasis in regards to cell physiology and pathophysiology. Further, this chapter focuses on the molecular identities, intracellular regulators as well as the pharmacology of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uniporter complex.

Mitochondrial Calcium Handling in Physiology and Disease

Calcium (Ca²⁺) accumulation inside mitochondria represents a pleiotropic signal controlling a wide range of cellular functions, including key metabolic pathways and life/death decisions. This phenomenon has been first described in the 1960s, but the identity of the molecules controlling this process remained a mystery until just few years ago, when both mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake and release systems were genetically dissected. This finally opened the possibility to develop genetic models to directly test the contribution of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ homeostasis to cellular functions. Here we summarize our current understanding of the molecular machinery that controls mitochondrial Ca²⁺ handling and critically evaluate the physiopathological role of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ signaling, based on recent evidences obtained through in vitro and in vivo models.

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-mediated sarcoplasmic reticulum-mitochondrial crosstalk influences adenosine triphosphate production via mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake through the mitochondrial ryanodine receptor in cardiac myocytes

AIMS

Elevated levels of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) in adult cardiac myocytes are typically associated with the development of cardiac hypertrophy, arrhythmias, and heart failure. IP3 enhances intracellular Ca(2+ )release via IP3 receptors (IP3Rs) located at the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). We aimed to determine whether IP3-induced Ca(2+ )release affects mitochondrial function and determine the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We compared the effects of IP3Rs- and ryanodine receptors (RyRs)-mediated cytosolic Ca(2+ )elevation achieved by endothelin-1 (ET-1) and isoproterenol (ISO) stimulation, respectively, on mitochondrial Ca(2+ )uptake and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) generation. Both ET-1 and isoproterenol induced an increase in mitochondrial Ca(2+ )(Ca(2 +) m) but only ET-1 led to an increase in ATP concentration. ET-1-induced effects were prevented by cell treatment with the IP3 antagonist 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate and absent in myocytes from transgenic mice expressing an IP3 chelating protein (IP3 sponge). Furthermore, ET-1-induced mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake was insensitive to the mitochondrial Ca(2+ )uniporter inhibitor Ru360, however was attenuated by RyRs type 1 inhibitor dantrolene. Using real-time polymerase chain reaction, we detected the presence of all three isoforms of IP3Rs and RyRs in murine ventricular myocytes with a dominant presence of type 2 isoform for both receptors.

CONCLUSIONS

Stimulation of IP3Rs with ET-1 induces Ca(2+ )release from the SR which is tunnelled to mitochondria via mitochondrial RyR leading to stimulation of mitochondrial ATP production.

The mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter: regulation by auxiliary subunits and signal transduction pathways

Mitochondrial Ca(2+) homeostasis, the Ca(2+) influx-efflux balance, is responsible for the control of numerous cellular functions, including energy metabolism, generation of reactive oxygen species, spatiotemporal dynamics of Ca(2+) signaling, and cell growth and death. Recent discovery of the molecular identity of the mitochondrial Ca(2+) uniporter (MCU) provides new possibilities for application of genetic approaches to study the mitochondrial Ca(2+) influx mechanism in various cell types and tissues. In addition, the subsequent discovery of various auxiliary subunits associated with MCU suggests that mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake is not solely regulated by a single protein (MCU), but likely by a macromolecular protein complex, referred to as the MCU-protein complex (mtCUC). Moreover, recent reports have shown the potential role of MCU posttranslational modifications in the regulation of mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake through mtCUC. These observations indicate that mtCUCs form a local signaling complex at the inner mitochondrial membrane that could significantly regulate mitochondrial Ca(2+) handling, as well as numerous mitochondrial and cellular functions. In this review we discuss the current literature on mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake mechanisms, with a particular focus on the structure and function of mtCUC, as well as its regulation by signal transduction pathways, highlighting current controversies and discrepancies.

Long-chain acylcarnitines determine ischaemia/reperfusion-induced damage in heart mitochondria

The accumulation of long-chain fatty acids (FAs) and their CoA and carnitine esters is observed in the ischaemic myocardium after acute ischaemia/reperfusion. The aim of the present study was to identify harmful FA intermediates and their detrimental mechanisms of action in mitochondria and the ischaemic myocardium. In the present study, we found that the long-chain acyl-CoA and acylcarnitine content is increased in mitochondria isolated from an ischaemic area of the myocardium. In analysing the FA derivative content, we discovered that long-chain acylcarnitines, but not acyl-CoAs, accumulate at concentrations that are harmful to mitochondria. Acylcarnitine accumulation in the mitochondrial intermembrane space is a result of increased carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT1) and decreased carnitine palmitoyltransferase 2 (CPT2) activity in ischaemic myocardium and it leads to inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation, which in turn induces mitochondrial membrane hyperpolarization and stimulates the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cardiac mitochondria. Thanks to protection mediated by acyl-CoA-binding protein (ACBP), the heart is much better guarded against the damaging effects of acyl-CoAs than against acylcarnitines. Supplementation of perfusion buffer with palmitoylcarnitine (PC) before occlusion resulted in a 2-fold increase in the acylcarnitine content of the heart and increased the infarct size (IS) by 33%. A pharmacologically induced decrease in the mitochondrial acylcarnitine content reduced the IS by 44%. Long-chain acylcarnitines are harmful FA intermediates, accumulating in ischaemic heart mitochondria and inducing inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation. Therefore, decreasing the acylcarnitine content via cardioprotective drugs may represent a novel treatment strategy.

Modulation of the matrix redox signaling by mitochondrial Ca2+

Mitochondria sense, shape and integrate signals, and thus function as central players in cellular signal transduction. Ca²⁺ waves and redox reactions are two such intracellular signals modulated by mitochondria. Mitochondrial Ca²⁺ transport is of utmost physio-pathological relevance with a strong impact on metabolism and cell fate. Despite its importance, the molecular nature of the proteins involved in mitochondrial Ca²⁺ transport has been revealed only recently. Mitochondrial Ca²⁺ promotes energy metabolism through the activation of matrix dehydrogenases and down-stream stimulation of the respiratory chain. These changes also alter the mitochondrial NAD(P)H/NAD(P)⁺ ratio, but at the same time will increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Reducing equivalents and ROS are having opposite effects on the mitochondrial redox state, which are hard to dissect. With the recent development of genetically encoded mitochondrial-targeted redox-sensitive sensors, real-time monitoring of matrix thiol redox dynamics has become possible. The discoveries of the molecular nature of mitochondrial transporters of Ca²⁺ combined with the utilization of the novel redox sensors is shedding light on the complex relation between mitochondrial Ca²⁺ and redox signals and their impact on cell function. In this review, we describe mitochondrial Ca²⁺ handling, focusing on a number of newly identified proteins involved in mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake and release. We further discuss our recent findings, revealing how mitochondrial Ca²⁺ influences the matrix redox state. As a result, mitochondrial Ca²⁺ is able to modulate the many mitochondrial redox-regulated processes linked to normal physiology and disease.

UCP2 modulates single-channel properties of a MCU-dependent Ca(2+) inward current in mitochondria

The mitochondrial Ca(2+) uniporter is a highly Ca(2+)-selective protein complex that consists of the pore-forming mitochondrial Ca(2+) uniporter protein (MCU), the scaffolding essential MCU regulator (EMRE), and mitochondrial calcium uptake 1 and 2 (MICU1/2), which negatively regulate mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake. We have previously reported that uncoupling proteins 2 and 3 (UCP2/3) are also engaged in the activity of mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake under certain conditions, while the mechanism by which UCP2/3 facilitates mitochondrial Ca(2+) uniport remains elusive. This work was designed to investigate the impact of UCP2 on the three distinct mitochondrial Ca(2+) currents found in mitoplasts isolated from HeLa cells, the intermediate- (i-), burst- (b-) and extra-large (xl-) mitochondrial/mitoplast Ca(2+) currents (MCC). Using the patch clamp technique on mitoplasts from cells with reduced MCU and EMRE unveiled a very high affinity of MCU for xl-MCC that succeeds that for i-MCC, indicating the coexistence of at least two MCU/EMRE-dependent Ca(2+) currents. The manipulation of the expression level of UCP2 by either siRNA-mediated knockdown or overexpression changed exclusively the open probability (NPo) of xl-MCC by approx. 38% decrease or nearly a 3-fold increase, respectively. These findings confirm a regulatory role of UCP2 in mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake and identify UCP2 as a selective modulator of just one distinct MCU/EMRE-dependent mitochondrial Ca(2+) inward current.

Molecular mechanism of mitochondrial calcium uptake

Mitochondrial calcium uptake plays a critical role in various cellular functions. After half a century of extensive studies, the molecular components and important regulators of the mitochondrial calcium uptake complex have been identified. However, the mechanism by which these protein molecules interact with one another and coordinate to regulate calcium passage through mitochondrial membranes remains elusive. Here, we summarize recent progress in the structural and functional characterization of these important protein molecules, which are involved in mitochondrial calcium uptake. In particular, we focus on the current understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying calcium through two mitochondrial membranes. Additionally, we provide a new perspective for future directions in investigation and molecular intervention.

Involvement of palmitate/Ca2+(Sr2+)-induced pore in the cycling of ions across the mitochondrial membrane

The palmitate/Ca2+-induced (Pal/Ca2+) pore, which is formed due to the unique feature of long-chain saturated fatty acids to bind Ca2+ with high affinity, has been shown to play an important role in the physiology of mitochondria. The present study demonstrates that the efflux of Ca2+ from rat liver mitochondria induced by ruthenium red, an inhibitor of the energy-dependent Ca2+ influx, seems to be partly due to the opening of Pal/Ca2+ pores. Exogenous Pal stimulates the efflux. Measurements of pH showed that the Ca2+-induced alkalization of the mitochondrial matrix increased in the presence of Pal. The influx of Ca2+ (Sr2+) also induced an outflow of K+ followed by the reuptake of the ion by mitochondria. The outflow was not affected by a K+/H+ exchange blocker, and the reuptake was prevented by an ATP-dependent K+ channel inhibitor. It was also shown that the addition of Sr2+ to mitochondria under hypotonic conditions was accompanied by reversible cyclic changes in the membrane potential, the concentrations of Sr2+ and K+ and the respiratory rate. The cyclic changes were effectively suppressed by the inhibitors of Ca2+-dependent phospholipase A2, and a new Sr2+ cycle could only be initiated after the previous cycle was finished, indicating a refractory period in the mitochondrial sensitivity to Sr2+. All of the Ca2+- and Sr2+-induced effects were observed in the presence of cyclosporin A. This paper discusses a possible role of Pal/Ca2+ pores in the maintenance of cell ion homeostasis.

Mitochondrial calcium transport in trypanosomes

The biochemical peculiarities of trypanosomes were fundamental for the recent molecular identification of the long-sought channel involved in mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake, the mitochondrial Ca(2+) uniporter or MCU. This discovery led to the finding of numerous regulators of the channel, which form a high molecular weight complex with MCU. Some of these regulators have been bioinformatically identified in trypanosomes, which are the first eukaryotic organisms described for which MCU is essential. In trypanosomes MCU is important for buffering cytosolic Ca(2+) changes and for activation of the bioenergetics of the cells. Future work on this pathway in trypanosomes promises further insight into the biology of these fascinating eukaryotes, as well as the potential for novel target discovery.

Mitochondrial ion channels/transporters as sensors and regulators of cellular redox signaling

SIGNIFICANCE

Mitochondrial ion channels/transporters and the electron transport chain (ETC) serve as key sensors and regulators for cellular redox signaling, the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitrogen species (RNS) in mitochondria, and balancing cell survival and death. Although the functional and pharmacological characteristics of mitochondrial ion transport mechanisms have been extensively studied for several decades, the majority of the molecular identities that are responsible for these channels/transporters have remained a mystery until very recently.

RECENT ADVANCES

Recent breakthrough studies uncovered the molecular identities of the diverse array of major mitochondrial ion channels/transporters, including the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter pore, mitochondrial permeability transition pore, and mitochondrial ATP-sensitive K+ channel. This new information enables us to form detailed molecular and functional characterizations of mitochondrial ion channels/transporters and their roles in mitochondrial redox signaling.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Redox-mediated post-translational modifications of mitochondrial ion channels/transporters and ETC serve as key mechanisms for the spatiotemporal control of mitochondrial ROS/RNS generation.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Identification of detailed molecular mechanisms for redox-mediated regulation of mitochondrial ion channels will enable us to find novel therapeutic targets for many diseases that are associated with cellular redox signaling and mitochondrial ion channels/transporters.

Ion channels and transporters as therapeutic targets in the pulmonary circulation

Pulmonary circulation is a low pressure, low resistance, high flow system. The low resting vascular tone is maintained by the concerted action of ion channels, exchangers and pumps. Under physiological as well as pathophysiological conditions, they are targets of locally secreted or circulating vasodilators and/or vasoconstrictors, leading to changes in expression or to posttranslational modifications. Both structural changes in the pulmonary arteries and a sustained increase in pulmonary vascular tone result in pulmonary vascular remodeling contributing to morbidity and mortality in pediatric and adult patients. There is increasing evidence demonstrating the pivotal role of ion channels such as K(+) and Cl(-) or transient receptor potential channels in different cell types which are thought to play a key role in vasoconstrictive remodeling. This review focuses on ion channels, exchangers and pumps in the pulmonary circulation and summarizes their putative pathophysiological as well as therapeutic role in pulmonary vascular remodeling. A better understanding of the mechanisms of their actions may allow for the development of new options for attenuating acute and chronic pulmonary vasoconstriction and remodeling treating the devastating disease pulmonary hypertension.

Mitochondrial channels: ion fluxes and more

The field of mitochondrial ion channels has recently seen substantial progress, including the molecular identification of some of the channels. An integrative approach using genetics, electrophysiology, pharmacology, and cell biology to clarify the roles of these channels has thus become possible. It is by now clear that many of these channels are important for energy supply by the mitochondria and have a major impact on the fate of the entire cell as well. The purpose of this review is to provide an up-to-date overview of the electrophysiological properties, molecular identity, and pathophysiological functions of the mitochondrial ion channels studied so far and to highlight possible therapeutic perspectives based on current information.

Computational analysis of Ca2+ dynamics in isolated cardiac mitochondria predicts two distinct modes of Ca2+ uptake

Cardiac mitochondria can act as a significant Ca(2+) sink and shape cytosolic Ca(2+) signals affecting various cellular processes, such as energy metabolism and excitation-contraction coupling. However, different mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake mechanisms are still not well understood. In this study, we analysed recently published Ca(2+) uptake experiments performed on isolated guinea pig cardiac mitochondria using a computer model of mitochondrial bioenergetics and cation handling. The model analyses of the data suggest that the majority of mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake, at physiological levels of cytosolic Ca(2+) and Mg(2+), occurs through a fast Ca(2+) uptake pathway, which is neither the Ca(2+) uniporter nor the rapid mode of Ca(2+) uptake. This fast Ca(2+) uptake component was explained by including a biophysical model of the ryanodine receptor (RyR) in the computer model. However, the Mg(2+)-dependent enhancement of the RyR adaptation was not evident in this RyR-type channel, in contrast to that of cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum RyR. The extended computer model is corroborated by simulating an independent experimental dataset, featuring mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake, egress and sequestration. The model analyses of the two datasets validate the existence of two classes of Ca(2+) buffers that comprise the mitochondrial Ca(2+) sequestration system. The modelling study further indicates that the Ca(2+) buffers respond differentially depending on the source of Ca(2+) uptake. In particular, it suggests that the Class 1 Ca(2+) buffering capacity is auto-regulated by the rate at which Ca(2+) is taken up by mitochondria.

The excitation-contraction coupling mechanism in skeletal muscle

First coined by Alexander Sandow in 1952, the term excitation-contraction coupling (ECC) describes the rapid communication between electrical events occurring in the plasma membrane of skeletal muscle fibres and Ca2+ release from the SR, which leads to contraction. The sequence of events in twitch skeletal muscle involves: (1) initiation and propagation of an action potential along the plasma membrane, (2) spread of the potential throughout the transverse tubule system (T-tubule system), (3) dihydropyridine receptors (DHPR)-mediated detection of changes in membrane potential, (4) allosteric interaction between DHPR and sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) ryanodine receptors (RyR), (5) release of Ca2+ from the SR and transient increase of Ca2+ concentration in the myoplasm, (6) activation of the myoplasmic Ca2+ buffering system and the contractile apparatus, followed by (7) Ca2+ disappearance from the myoplasm mediated mainly by its reuptake by the SR through the SR Ca2+ adenosine triphosphatase (SERCA), and under several conditions movement to the mitochondria and extrusion by the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX). In this text, we review the basics of ECC in skeletal muscle and the techniques used to study it. Moreover, we highlight some recent advances and point out gaps in knowledge on particular issues related to ECC such as (1) DHPR-RyR molecular interaction, (2) differences regarding fibre types, (3) its alteration during muscle fatigue, (4) the role of mitochondria and store-operated Ca2+ entry in the general ECC sequence, (5) contractile potentiators, and (6) Ca2+ sparks.

Mitochondrial Ca(2+) uniporter (MCU)-dependent and MCU-independent Ca(2+) channels coexist in the inner mitochondrial membrane

A protein referred to as CCDC109A and then renamed to mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU) has recently been shown to accomplish mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake in different cell types. In this study, we investigated whole-mitoplast inward cation currents and single Ca²⁺ channel activities in mitoplasts prepared from stable MCU knockdown HeLa cells using the patch-clamp technique. In whole-mitoplast configuration, diminution of MCU considerably reduced inward Ca²⁺ and Na⁺ currents. This was accompanied by a decrease in occurrence of single channel activity of the intermediate conductance mitochondrial Ca²⁺ current (i-MCC). However, ablation of MCU yielded a compensatory 2.3-fold elevation in the occurrence of the extra large conductance mitochondrial Ca²⁺ current (xl-MCC), while the occurrence of bursting currents (b-MCC) remained unaltered. These data reveal i-MCC as MCU-dependent current while xl-MCC and b-MCC seem to be rather MCU-independent, thus, pointing to the engagement of at least two molecularly distinct mitochondrial Ca²⁺ channels.

Overexpression of ryanodine receptor type 1 enhances mitochondrial fragmentation and Ca2+-induced ATP production in cardiac H9c2 myoblasts

Ca(+) influx to mitochondria is an important trigger for both mitochondrial dynamics and ATP generation in various cell types, including cardiac cells. Mitochondrial Ca(2+) influx is mainly mediated by the mitochondrial Ca(2+) uniporter (MCU). Growing evidence also indicates that mitochondrial Ca(2+) influx mechanisms are regulated not solely by MCU but also by multiple channels/transporters. We have previously reported that skeletal muscle-type ryanodine receptor (RyR) type 1 (RyR1), which expressed at the mitochondrial inner membrane, serves as an additional Ca(2+) uptake pathway in cardiomyocytes. However, it is still unclear which mitochondrial Ca(2+) influx mechanism is the dominant regulator of mitochondrial morphology/dynamics and energetics in cardiomyocytes. To investigate the role of mitochondrial RyR1 in the regulation of mitochondrial morphology/function in cardiac cells, RyR1 was transiently or stably overexpressed in cardiac H9c2 myoblasts. We found that overexpressed RyR1 was partially localized in mitochondria as observed using both immunoblots of mitochondrial fractionation and confocal microscopy, whereas RyR2, the main RyR isoform in the cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum, did not show any expression at mitochondria. Interestingly, overexpression of RyR1 but not MCU or RyR2 resulted in mitochondrial fragmentation. These fragmented mitochondria showed bigger and sustained mitochondrial Ca(2+) transients compared with basal tubular mitochondria. In addition, RyR1-overexpressing cells had a higher mitochondrial ATP concentration under basal conditions and showed more ATP production in response to cytosolic Ca(2+) elevation compared with nontransfected cells as observed by a matrix-targeted ATP biosensor. These results indicate that RyR1 possesses a mitochondrial targeting/retention signal and modulates mitochondrial morphology and Ca(2+)-induced ATP production in cardiac H9c2 myoblasts.

Role of nociceptor αCaMKII in transition from acute to chronic pain (hyperalgesic priming) in male and female rats

We have previously shown that activation of protein kinase Cε (PKCε) in male rats induces a chronic, long-lasting change in nociceptors such that a subsequent exposure to proinflammatory mediators produces markedly prolonged mechanical hyperalgesia. This neuroplastic change, hyperalgesic priming, is dependent on activation of cytoplasmic polyadenylation element-binding protein (CPEB), downstream of PKCε, and consequent translation of mRNAs in the peripheral terminal of the nociceptor. Since α calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (αCaMKII), a molecule implicated in neuroplasticity, is a target of CPEB and can also affect CPEB function, we investigated its role in the transition from acute to chronic pain. Priming induced by direct activation of PKCε can be prevented by inhibition of αCaMKII. In addition, direct activation of αCaMKII induces priming, which was not prevented by pretreatment with PKCε antisense, suggesting that αCaMKII is downstream of PKCε in the induction of priming. Activation of ryanodine receptors (RyRs), which can lead to activation of αCaMKII, also induced priming, in a calcium- and αCaMKII-dependent manner. Similarly, inhibition of the RyR and a calcium buffer prevented induction of priming by PKCε. Unlike activation of PKCε, ryanodine and αCaMKII induced priming in female as well as male rats. Our results demonstrate a contribution of αCaMKII to induction of hyperalgesic priming, a phenomenon implicated in the transition from acute to chronic pain.

Zebrafish models for ectopic mineralization disorders: practical issues from morpholino design to post-injection observations

Zebrafish (ZF, Danio rerio) has emerged as an important and popular model species to study different human diseases. Key regulators of skeletal development and calcium metabolism are highly conserved between mammals and ZF. The corresponding orthologs share significant sequence similarities and an overlap in expression patterns when compared to mammals, making ZF a potential model for the study of mineralization-related disorders and soft tissue mineralization. To characterize the function of early mineralization-related genes in ZF, these genes can be knocked down by injecting morpholinos into early stage embryos. Validation of the morpholino needs to be performed and the concern of aspecific effects can be addressed by applying one or more independent techniques to knock down the gene of interest. Post-injection assessment of early mineralization defects can be done using general light microscopy, calcein staining, Alizarin red staining, Alizarin red-Alcian blue double staining, and by the use of transgenic lines. Examination of general molecular defects can be done by performing protein and gene expression analysis, and more specific processes can be explored by investigating ectopic mineralization-related mechanisms such as apoptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction. In this paper, we will discuss all details about the aforementioned techniques; shared knowledge will be very useful for the future investigation of ZF models for ectopic mineralization disorders and to understand the underlying pathways involved in soft tissue calcification.

Ruthenium red colorimetric and birefringent staining of amyloid-β aggregates in vitro and in Tg2576 mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease most notably characterized by the misfolding of amyloid-β (Aβ) into fibrils and its accumulation into plaques. In this Article, we utilize the affinity of Aβ fibrils to bind metal cations and subsequently imprint their chirality to bound molecules to develop novel imaging compounds for staining Aβ aggregates. Here, we investigate the cationic dye ruthenium red (ammoniated ruthenium oxychloride) that binds calcium-binding proteins, as a labeling agent for Aβ deposits. Ruthenium red stained amyloid plaques red under light microscopy, and exhibited birefringence under crossed polarizers when bound to Aβ plaques in brain tissue sections from the Tg2576 mouse model of AD. Staining of Aβ plaques was confirmed via staining of the same sections with the fluorescent amyloid binding dye Thioflavin S. In addition, it was confirmed that divalent cations such as calcium displace ruthenium red, consistent with a mechanism of binding by electrostatic interaction. We further characterized the interaction of ruthenium red with synthetic Aβ fibrils using independent biophysical techniques. Ruthenium red exhibited birefringence and induced circular dichroic bands at 540 nm upon binding to Aβ fibrils due to induced chirality. Thus, the chirality and cation binding properties of Aβ aggregates could be capitalized for the development of novel amyloid labeling methods, adding to the arsenal of AD imaging techniques and diagnostic tools.

The mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU): molecular identity and physiological roles

The direct measurement of mitochondrial [Ca(2+)] with highly specific probes demonstrated that major swings in organellar [Ca(2+)] parallel the changes occurring in the cytosol and regulate processes as diverse as aerobic metabolism and cell death by necrosis and apoptosis. Despite great biological relevance, insight was limited by the complete lack of molecular understanding. The situation has changed, and new perspectives have emerged following the very recent identification of the mitochondrial Ca(2+) uniporter, the channel allowing rapid Ca(2+) accumulation across the inner mitochondrial membrane.

Characterization of distinct single-channel properties of Ca²⁺ inward currents in mitochondria

Previous studies have demonstrated several molecularly distinct players involved in mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake. In the present study, electrophysiological recordings on mitoplasts that were isolated from HeLa cells were performed in order to biophysically and pharmacologically characterize Ca²⁺ currents across the inner mitochondrial membrane. In mitoplast-attached configuration with 105 mM Ca²⁺ as a charge carrier, three distinct channel conductances of 11, 23, and 80 pS were observed. All types of mitochondrial currents were voltage-dependent and essentially depended on the presence of Ca²⁺ in the pipette. The 23 pS channel exhibited burst kinetics. Though all channels were sensitive to ruthenium red, their sensitivity was different. The 11 and 23 pS channels exhibited a lower sensitivity to ruthenium red than the 80 pS channel. The activities of all channels persisted in the presence of cylosporin A, CGP 37187, various K⁺-channel inhibitors, and Cl⁻ channel blockers disodium 4,4′-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2′-disulfonate and niflumic acid. Collectively, our data identified multiple conductances of Ca²⁺ currents in mitoplasts isolated from HeLa cells, thus challenging the dogma of only one unique mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uniporter.

Calcium signaling in cardiac mitochondria

Mitochondrial Ca signaling contributes to the regulation of cellular energy metabolism, and mitochondria participate in cardiac excitation-contraction coupling (ECC) through their ability to store Ca, shape the cytosolic Ca signals and generate ATP required for contraction. The mitochondrial inner membrane is equipped with an elaborate system of channels and transporters for Ca uptake and extrusion that allows for the decoding of cytosolic Ca signals, and the storage of Ca in the mitochondrial matrix compartment. Controversy, however remains whether the fast cytosolic Ca transients underlying ECC in the beating heart are transmitted rapidly into the matrix compartment or slowly integrated by the mitochondrial Ca transport machinery. This review summarizes established and novel findings on cardiac mitochondrial Ca transport and buffering, and discusses the evidence either supporting or arguing against the idea that Ca can be taken up rapidly by mitochondria during ECC.

Mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake 1 (MICU1) and mitochondrial ca2+ uniporter (MCU) contribute to metabolism-secretion coupling in clonal pancreatic β-cells

In pancreatic β-cells, uptake of Ca²⁺ into mitochondria facilitates metabolism-secretion coupling by activation of various matrix enzymes, thus facilitating ATP generation by oxidative phosphorylation and, in turn, augmenting insulin release. We employed an siRNA-based approach to evaluate the individual contribution of four proteins that were recently described to be engaged in mitochondrial Ca²⁺ sequestration in clonal INS-1 832/13 pancreatic β-cells: the mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake 1 (MICU1), mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uniporter (MCU), uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2), and leucine zipper EF-hand-containing transmembrane protein 1 (LETM1). Using a FRET-based genetically encoded Ca²⁺ sensor targeted to mitochondria, we show that a transient knockdown of MICU1 or MCU diminished mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake upon both intracellular Ca²⁺ release and Ca²⁺ entry via L-type channels. In contrast, knockdown of UCP2 and LETM1 exclusively reduced mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake in response to either intracellular Ca²⁺ release or Ca²⁺ entry, respectively. Therefore, we further investigated the role of MICU1 and MCU in metabolism-secretion coupling. Diminution of MICU1 or MCU reduced mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake in response to d-glucose, whereas d-glucose-triggered cytosolic Ca²⁺ oscillations remained unaffected. Moreover, d-glucose-evoked increases in cytosolic ATP and d-glucose-stimulated insulin secretion were diminished in MICU1- or MCU-silenced cells. Our data highlight the crucial role of MICU1 and MCU in mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake in pancreatic β-cells and their involvement in the positive feedback required for sustained insulin secretion.

Mitochondria as sensors and regulators of calcium signalling

During the past two decades calcium (Ca(2+)) accumulation in energized mitochondria has emerged as a biological process of utmost physiological relevance. Mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake was shown to control intracellular Ca(2+) signalling, cell metabolism, cell survival and other cell-type specific functions by buffering cytosolic Ca(2+) levels and regulating mitochondrial effectors. Recently, the identity of mitochondrial Ca(2+) transporters has been revealed, opening new perspectives for investigation and molecular intervention.

Inflammation alters regional mitochondrial Ca²+ in human airway smooth muscle cells

Regulation of cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](cyt)) in airway smooth muscle (ASM) is a key aspect of airway contractility and can be modulated by inflammation. Mitochondria have tremendous potential for buffering [Ca(2+)](cyt), helping prevent Ca(2+) overload, and modulating other intracellular events. Here, compartmentalization of mitochondria to different cellular regions may subserve different roles. In the present study, we examined the role of Ca(2+) buffering by mitochondria and mitochondrial Ca(2+) transport mechanisms in the regulation of [Ca(2+)](cyt) in enzymatically dissociated human ASM cells upon exposure to the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-13. Cells were loaded simultaneously with fluo-3 AM and rhod-2 AM, and [Ca(2+)](cyt) and mitochondrial Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](mito)) were measured, respectively, using real-time two-color fluorescence microscopy in both the perinuclear and distal, perimembranous regions of cells. Histamine induced a rapid increase in both [Ca(2+)](cyt) and [Ca(2+)](mito), with a significant delay in the mitochondrial response. Inhibition of the mitochondrial Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger (1 μM CGP-37157) increased [Ca(2+)](mito) responses in perinuclear mitochondria but not distal mitochondria. Inhibition of the mitochondrial uniporter (1 μM Ru360) decreased [Ca(2+)](mito) responses in perinuclear and distal mitochondria. CGP-37157 and Ru360 significantly enhanced histamine-induced [Ca(2+)](cyt). TNF-α and IL-13 both increased [Ca(2+)](cyt), which was associated with decreased [Ca(2+)](mito) in the case of TNF-α but not IL-13. The effects of TNF-α on both [Ca(2+)](cyt) and [Ca(2+)](mito) were affected by CGP-37157 but not by Ru360. Overall, these data demonstrate that in human ASM cells, mitochondria buffer [Ca(2+)](cyt) after agonist stimulation and its enhancement by inflammation. The differential regulation of [Ca(2+)](mito) in different parts of ASM cells may serve to locally regulate Ca(2+) fluxes from intracellular sources versus the plasma membrane as well as respond to differential energy demands at these sites. We propose that such differential mitochondrial regulation, and its disruption, may play a role in airway hyperreactivity in diseases such as asthma, where [Ca(2+)](cyt) is increased.

Mitochondrial organization and Ca2+ uptake

Mitochondria may function as multiple separate organelles or as a single electrically coupled continuum to modulate changes in [Ca2+]c (cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration) in various cell types. Mitochondria may also be tethered to the internal Ca2+ store or plasma membrane in particular parts of cells to facilitate the organelles modulation of local and global [Ca2+]c increases. Differences in the organization and positioning contributes significantly to the at times apparently contradictory reports on the way mitochondria modulate [Ca2+]c signals. In the present paper, we review the organization of mitochondria and the organelles role in Ca2+ signalling.

Studying mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake - a revisit

Mitochondrial Ca(2+) sequestration is a well-known process that is involved in various physiological and pathological mechanisms. Using isolated suspended mitochondria one unique mitochondrial Ca(2+) uniporter was considered to account ubiquitously for the transfer of Ca(2+) into these organelles. However, by applying alternative techniques for measuring mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake evidences for molecularly distinct mitochondrial Ca(2+) carriers accumulated recently. Herein we compared different methodical approaches of studying mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake. Patch clamp technique on mitoplasts from endothelial and HeLa cells revealed the existence of three and two mitoplast Ca(2+) currents (I(CaMito)), respectively. According to their conductance, these channels were named small (s-), intermediate (i-), large (l-) and extra-large (xl-) mitoplast Ca(2+) currents (MCC). i-MCC was found in mitoplasts of both cell types whereas s-MCC and l-MCC or xl-MCC were/was exclusively found in mitoplasts from endothelial cells or HeLa cells. The comparison of mitochondrial Ca(2+) signals, measured either indirectly by sensing extra-mitochondrial Ca(2+) or directly by recording changes of the matrix Ca(2+), showed different Ca(2+) sensitivities of the distinct mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake routes. Subpopulations of mitochondria with different Ca(2+) uptake capacities in intact endothelial cells could be identified using Rhod-2/AM. In contrast, cells expressing mitochondrial targeted pericam or cameleon (4mtD3cpv) showed homogeneous mitochondrial Ca(2+) signals in response to cell stimulation. The comparison of different experimental approaches and protocols using isolated organelles, permeabilized and intact cells, pointed to cell-type specific and versatile pathways for mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake. Moreover, this work highlights the necessity of the utilization of multiple technical approaches to study the complexity of mitochondrial Ca(2+) homeostasis.

Distinctive characteristics and functions of multiple mitochondrial Ca2+ influx mechanisms

Intracellular Ca(2+) is vital for cell physiology. Disruption of Ca(2+) homeostasis contributes to human diseases such as heart failure, neuron-degeneration, and diabetes. To ensure an effective intracellular Ca(2+) dynamics, various Ca(2+) transport proteins localized in different cellular regions have to work in coordination. The central role of mitochondrial Ca(2+) transport mechanisms in responding to physiological Ca(2+) pulses in cytosol is to take up Ca(2+) for regulating energy production and shaping the amplitude and duration of Ca(2+) transients in various micro-domains. Since the discovery that isolated mitochondria can take up large quantities of Ca(2+) approximately 5 decades ago, extensive studies have been focused on the functional characterization and implication of ion channels that dictate Ca(2+) transport across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake sensitive to non-specific inhibitors ruthenium red and Ru360 has long been considered as the activity of mitochondrial Ca(2+) uniporter (MCU). The general consensus is that MCU is dominantly or exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial Ca(2+) influx. Since multiple Ca(2+) influx mechanisms (e.g. L-, T-, and N-type Ca(2+) channel) have their unique functions in the plasma membrane, it is plausible that mitochondrial inner membrane has more than just MCU to decode complex intracellular Ca(2+) signaling in various cell types. During the last decade, four molecular identities related to mitochondrial Ca(2+) influx mechanisms have been identified. These are mitochondrial ryanodine receptor, mitochondrial uncoupling proteins, LETM1 (Ca(2+)/H(+) exchanger), and MCU and its Ca(2+) sensing regulatory subunit MICU1. Here, we briefly review recent progress in these and other reported mitochondrial Ca(2+) influx pathways and their differences in kinetics, Ca(2+) dependence, and pharmacological characteristics. Their potential physiological and pathological implications are also discussed.