Key role of microRNA in the regulation of granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor expression in murine alveolar epithelial cells during oxidative stress

Innate immunity of the lungs in homeostasis and disease

Humans breathe thousands of litres of non-sterile air each day containing bacteria, viruses, and fungi, as well as pollutants, allergens, and other particles. The continual exposure to foreign particles is juxtaposed with the vast surface area of the blood-air-barrier which becomes extremely thin to allow for efficient gas exchange. To prevent infection and injury, the healthy lung relies on a robust innate immune system to protect itself. Critically, this innate immune system must clear insults while maintaining immune tolerance and minimizing inflammation to avoid disrupting the lung's vital gas exchange function. In this review, we discuss how the innate immune system protects the lung from its environment.

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Activation in Pulmonary Alveolar Epithelial Cells Limits Inflammation and Preserves Lung Epithelial Cell Integrity

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is a receptor/transcription factor widely expressed in the lung. The physiological roles of AHR expressed in the alveolar epithelium remain unclear. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that alveolar epithelial AHR activity plays an important role in modulating inflammatory responses and maintaining alveolar integrity during lung injury and repair. AHR is expressed in alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) and is active. AHR activation with the endogenous AHR ligand, FICZ (5,11-dihydroindolo[3,2-b] carbazole-6-carboxaldehyde), significantly suppressed inflammatory cytokine expression in response to inflammatory stimuli in primary murine AECs and in the MLE-15 epithelial cell line. In an LPS model of acute lung injury in mice, coadministration of FICZ with LPS suppressed protein leak, reduced neutrophil accumulation in BAL fluid, and suppressed inflammatory cytokine expression in lung tissue and BAL fluid. Relevant to healing following inflammatory injury, AHR activation suppressed TGF-β-induced expression of genes associated with epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Knockdown of AHR in primary AECs with shRNA or in CRISPR-Cas-9-induced MLE-15 cells resulted in upregulation of α-smooth muscle actin (αSma), Col1a1, and Fn1 and reduced expression of epithelial genes Col4a1 and Sdc1. MLE-15 clones lacking AHR demonstrated accelerated wound closure in a scratch model. AHR activation with FICZ enhanced barrier function (transepithelial electrical resistance) in primary murine AECs and limited decline of transepithelial electrical resistance following inflammatory injury. AHR activation in AECs preserves alveolar integrity by modulating inflammatory cytokine expression while enhancing barrier function and limiting stress-induced expression of mesenchymal genes.

Mechanisms and Effects of Macrophage Polarization and Its Specifics in Pulmonary Environment

Macrophages are a specific group of cells found in all body tissues. They have specific characteristics in each of the tissues that correspond to the functional needs of the specific environment. These cells are involved in a wide range of processes, both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory ("wound healing"). This is due to their specific capacity for so-called polarization, a phenotypic change that is, moreover, partially reversible compared to other differentiated cells of the human body. This promises a wide range of possibilities for its influence and thus therapeutic use. In this article, we therefore review the mechanisms that cause polarization, the basic classification of polarized macrophages, their characteristic markers and the effects that accompany these phenotypic changes. Since the study of pulmonary (and among them mainly alveolar) macrophages is currently the focus of scientific interest of many researchers and these macrophages are found in very specific environments, given mainly by the extremely high partial pressure of oxygen compared to other locations, which specifically affects their behavior, we will focus our review on this group.

Recombinant GM-CSF for diseases of GM-CSF insufficiency: Correcting dysfunctional mononuclear phagocyte disorders

Introduction

Endogenous granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), identified by its ability to support differentiation of hematopoietic cells into several types of myeloid cells, is now known to support maturation and maintain the metabolic capacity of mononuclear phagocytes including monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. These cells sense and attack potential pathogens, present antigens to adaptive immune cells, and recruit other immune cells. Recombinant human (rhu) GM-CSF (e.g., sargramostim [glycosylated, yeast-derived rhu GM-CSF]) has immune modulating properties and can restore the normal function of mononuclear phagocytes rendered dysfunctional by deficient or insufficient endogenous GM-CSF.

Methods

We reviewed the emerging biologic and cellular effects of GM-CSF. Experts in clinical disease areas caused by deficient or insufficient endogenous GM-CSF examined the role of GM-CSF in mononuclear phagocyte disorders including autoimmune pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (aPAP), diverse infections (including COVID-19), wound healing, and anti-cancer immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy.

Results

We discuss emerging data for GM-CSF biology including the positive effects on mitochondrial function and cell metabolism, augmentation of phagocytosis and efferocytosis, and immune cell modulation. We further address how giving exogenous rhu GM-CSF may control or treat mononuclear phagocyte dysfunction disorders caused or exacerbated by GM-CSF deficiency or insufficiency. We discuss how rhu GM-CSF may augment the anti-cancer effects of immune checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy as well as ameliorate immune-related adverse events.

Discussion

We identify research gaps, opportunities, and the concept that rhu GM-CSF, by supporting and restoring the metabolic capacity and function of mononuclear phagocytes, can have significant therapeutic effects. rhu GM-CSF (e.g., sargramostim) might ameliorate multiple diseases of GM-CSF deficiency or insufficiency and address a high unmet medical need.

Biology of lung macrophages in health and disease

Tissue-resident alveolar and interstitial macrophages and recruited macrophages are critical players in innate immunity and maintenance of lung homeostasis. Until recently, assessing the differential functional contributions of tissue-resident versus recruited macrophages has been challenging because they share overlapping cell surface markers, making it difficult to separate them using conventional methods. This review describes how scRNA-seq and spatial transcriptomics can separate these subpopulations and help unravel the complexity of macrophage biology in homeostasis and disease. First, we provide a guide to identifying and distinguishing lung macrophages from other mononuclear phagocytes in humans and mice. Second, we outline emerging concepts related to the development and function of the various lung macrophages in the alveolar, perivascular, and interstitial niches. Finally, we describe how different tissue states profoundly alter their functions, including acute and chronic lung disease, cancer, and aging.

Peripheral Nerve Resident Macrophages and Schwann Cells Mediate Cancer-Induced Pain

Although macrophages (MΦ) are known to play a central role in neuropathic pain, their contribution to cancer pain has not been established. Here we report that depletion of sciatic nerve resident MΦs (rMΦ) in mice attenuates mechanical/cold hypersensitivity and spontaneous pain evoked by intraplantar injection of melanoma or lung carcinoma cells. MΦ-colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) was upregulated in the sciatic nerve trunk and mediated cancer-evoked pain via rMΦ expansion, transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) activation, and oxidative stress. Targeted deletion of Trpa1 revealed a key role for Schwann cell TRPA1 in sciatic nerve rMΦ expansion and pain-like behaviors. Depletion of rMΦs in a medial portion of the sciatic nerve prevented pain-like behaviors. Collectively, we identified a feed-forward pathway involving M-CSF, rMΦ, oxidative stress, and Schwann cell TRPA1 that operates throughout the nerve trunk to signal cancer-evoked pain. SIGNIFICANCE: Schwann cell TRPA1 sustains cancer pain through release of M-CSF and oxidative stress, which promote the expansion and the proalgesic actions of intraneural macrophages. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT: http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/canres/81/12/3387/F1.large.jpg.

Rapid bone repair with the recruitment of CD206+M2-like macrophages using non-viral scaffold-mediated miR-133a inhibition of host cells

microRNAs offer vast therapeutic potential for multiple disciplines. From a bone perspective, inhibition of miR-133a may offer potential to enhance Runx2 activity and increase bone repair. This study aims to assess the therapeutic capability of antagomiR-133a delivery from collagen-nanohydroxyapatite (coll-nHA) scaffolds following cell-free implantation in rat calvarial defects (7 mm diameter). This is, to the best of our knowledge, the first report of successful in vivo antagomiR uptake in host cells of fully immunocompetent animals without distribution to other off-target tissues. Our results demonstrate the localized release of antagomiR-133a to the implant site at 1 week post-implantation with increased calcium deposits already evident in the antagomiR-133a loaded scaffolds at this early timepoint. This was followed by an approximate 2-fold increase in bone volume versus antagomiR-free scaffolds and a significant 10-fold increase over the empty defect controls, after just 4 weeks. An increase in host CD206⁺ cells suggests an accelerated pro-remodeling response by M2-like macrophages accompanying bone repair with this treatment. Overall, this non-viral scaffold-mediated antagomiR-133a delivery platform demonstrates capability to accelerate bone repair in vivo - without the addition of exogenous cells - and underlines the role of M2 macrophage-like cells in directing accelerated bone repair. Expanding the repertoire of this platform to deliver alternative miRNAs offers exciting possibilities for a variety of therapeutic indications. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: microRNAs, small non-coding RNA molecules involved in gene regulation, may have potential as a new class of bone healing therapeutics as they can enhance the regenerative capacity of bone-forming cells. We developed a collagen-nanohydroxyapatite-microRNA scaffold system to investigate whether miR133a inhibition can enhance osteogenesis in rat MSCs and ultimately accelerate endogenous bone repair by host cells in vivo without pre-seeding cells prior to implantation. Overall, this off-the-shelf, non-viral scaffold-mediated antagomiR-133a delivery platform demonstrates capability to accelerate bone repair in vivo - without the requirement of exogenous cells - and highlights the role of CD206⁺M2 macrophage-like cells in guiding accelerated bone repair. Translating the repertoire of this platform to deliver alternative miRNAs offers exciting possibilities for a vast myriad of therapeutic indications.

Using prediction models to identify miRNA-based markers of low dose rate chronic stress

Robust biomarkers of exposure to chronic low dose stressors such as ionizing radiation, particularly following chronic low doses and dose-rates, are urgently needed. MicroRNAs (miRNA) have emerged as promising markers of exposure to high dose and dose-rate. Here, we evaluated the feasibility of classifying γ-radiation exposure at different dose rates based on miRNA expression levels. Our objective was to identify miRNA-signatures discriminating between exposure to γ-radiation or not, including exposure to chronic low dose rates. We exposed male CBA/CaOlaHsd and C57BL/6NHsd wild-type mice to 0, 2.5, 10 and 100 mGy/h γ-irradiation (3 Gy total-dose). From an initial screening of 576 miRNAs, a set of 21 signature-miRNAs was identified based on differential expression (>± 2-fold or p < 0.05). This 21-signature miRNA panel was investigated in 39 samples from 4/5 livers/group/mouse strain. A set of significantly differentially expressed miRNAs was identified in all γ-irradiated samples. Most miRNAs were upregulated in all γ-irradiated groups compared to control, and functional analysis of these miRNAs revealed involvement in several cancer-related signaling pathways. To identify miRNAs that distinguished exposed mice from controls, nine prediction methods; i.e., six variants of generalized regression models, random-forest, boosted-tree and nearest-shrunken-centroid (PAM) were used. The generalized regression methods seem to outperform the other prediction methods for classification of irradiated and control samples. Using the 21-miRNA panel in the prediction models, we identified sets of candidate miRNA-markers that predict exposure to γ-radiation. Among the top10 miRNA predictors, contributing most in each of the three γ-irradiated groups, three miRNA predictors (miR-140-3p, miR-133a-5p and miR-145a-5p) were common. Three miRNAs, miR-188-3p/26a-5p/26b-5p, were specific for lower dose-rate γ-radiation. Similarly, exposure to the high dose-rates was also correctly predicted, including mice exposed to X-rays. Our approach identifying miRNA-based signature panels may be extended to classify exposure to environmental, nutritional and life-style-related stressors, including chronic low-stress scenarios.

MicroRNAs as Therapeutic Targets and Clinical Biomarkers in Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Atherosclerosis develops over several decades and is mediated by a complex interplay of cellular mechanisms that drive a chronic inflammatory milieu and cell-to-cell interactions between endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells and macrophages that promote plaque development and progression. While there has been significant therapeutic advancement, there remains a gap where novel therapeutic approaches can complement current therapies to provide a holistic approach for treating atherosclerosis to orchestrate the regulation of complex signalling networks across multiple cell types and different stages of disease progression. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are emerging as important post-transcriptional regulators of a suite of molecular signalling pathways and pathophysiological cellular effects. Furthermore, circulating miRNAs have emerged as a new class of disease biomarkers to better inform clinical diagnosis and provide new avenues for personalised therapies. This review focusses on recent insights into the potential role of miRNAs both as therapeutic targets in the regulation of the most influential processes that govern atherosclerosis and as clinical biomarkers that may be reflective of disease severity, highlighting the potential theranostic (therapeutic and diagnostic) properties of miRNAs in the management of cardiovascular disease.

Expression of MicroRNAs in Fibroblasts and Macrophages Is Regulated by Hypoxia-Induced Extracellular Acidosis

Under pathological conditions like inflammation, ischemia or in solid tumors, parameters of the microenvironment like local oxygenation and extracellular pH show marked changes when compared to healthy tissue. The altered microenvironment affects cellular phenotype of omnipresent fibroblasts and immune cells. Recently, the impact of the microenvironment on the expression patterns of microRNAs, small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression on a post-transcriptional level, was discussed. Therefore, microRNAs might be the link between altered microenvironmental parameters and changes in cellular phenotype. In this study, the effect of hypoxia-induced extracellular acidosis (24 h pH 6.6) on microRNA expression in fibroblasts and macrophages was analyzed. MicroRNAs in rat fibroblasts (NRK-49F) were examined with the miScript miRNA PCR Array and changes in the expression validated by TaqMan qPCR. Subsequently, the identified microRNAs were analyzed in RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages. Nine out of 84 tested microRNAs were found to be acidosis-regulated in fibroblasts by miRNA PCR array, most of them up-regulated. Of those, the pH dependency could be validated by TaqMan qPCR for five of these nine microRNAs. When comparing these microRNAs in terms of their expression in macrophages, profound differences were observed. Thus, acidosis-induced alterations in the expression of microRNAs seem to be cell-type specific. Only the up-regulation of the miR-133b by low pH was seen in all normal cells, but not in tumor cells. As the identified microRNAs are involved in the regulation of proliferation, cell death and migration (amongst others), acidosis-induced changes in their expression might affect cellular behavior of fibroblasts and macrophages under pathological conditions. For instance the proto-oncogene c-Jun, which is a target of the miR-133b, was shown to be acidosis-regulated. Acidosis could regulate the biological behavior via miRNA-133b and c-Jun.

Consequences of Hypoxia for the Pulmonary Alveolar Epithelial Cell Innate Immune Response

Pulmonary innate immune responses involve a highly regulated multicellular network to defend the enormous surface area of the lung. Disruption of these responses renders the host susceptible to pneumonia. Alveolar epithelial cells (AEC) are a critical source of innate immune molecules such as GM-CSF, which determine the functional maturation of alveolar macrophages. In many pulmonary diseases, heterogeneous ventilation leads to regional hypoxia in the lung. The effect of hypoxia on AEC innate immune function is unknown. We now report that exposure of primary murine AEC to hypoxia (1% oxygen) for 24 h results in significant suppression of key innate immune molecules, including GM-CSF, CCL2, and IL-6. This exposure did not cause toxicity but did induce stabilization of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α protein (HIF-1α) and shift to glycolytic metabolism. Focusing on GM-CSF, we found that hypoxia greatly decreased the rate of GM-CSF transcription. Hypoxia both decreased NF-κB signaling in AEC and induced chromosomal changes, resulting in decreased accessibility in the GM-CSF proximal promoter of target sequences for NF-κB binding. In mice exposed to hypoxia in vivo (12% oxygen for 2 d), lung GM-CSF protein expression was reduced. In vivo phagocytosis of fluorescent beads by alveolar macrophages was also suppressed, but this effect was reversed by treatment with GM-CSF. These studies suggest that in critically ill patients, local hypoxia may contribute to the susceptibility of poorly ventilated lung units to infection through complementary effects on several pathways, reducing AEC expression of GM-CSF and other key innate immune molecules.

Potential ameliorative effects of epigallocatechin‑3‑gallate against testosterone-induced benign prostatic hyperplasia and fibrosis in rats

Green tea is among the most popular beverages in the world and is an important source of phytoestrogens. Epigallocatechin‑3‑gallate (EGCG) is the major polyphenol in green tea. The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) activity and underling mechanisms of EGCG in testosterone-induced BPH rats and in BPH-1 cells. Prostatic levels of oxidative stress and inflammation makers, as well as angiogenesis related growth factors were measured. Additionally, the prostatic levels of sex hormonal mediators (androgen receptor (AR), estrogen receptor (ER)-α and ER-β), hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α, transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), type I TGF-β receptor (TGF-βRI), Smad3, phosphorylation-Smad3 (p-Smad3), epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers (E-cadherin, collagen-I, fibronectin and α-SMA) and microRNA (miR)-133a/b were analyzed by immunohistochemistry assay, western blot and/or quantitative RT-PCR. It was observed that EGCG attenuated the prostatic oxidative stress and inflammatory microenvironment, ameliorated prostatic hyperplasia and collagen deposition, reduced the levels of angiogenesis related growth factors, inhibited the over-expression of AR, ER-α, HIF-1α, TGF-β1, TGF-βRI and p-Smad3, enhanced the expression of ER-β, increased the levels of miR-133a/b, as well as relieved prostatic EMT in rats. Both HIF-1α inhibitor and EGCG decreased the expression of HIF-1α and TGF-β1, as well as attenuated EMT in BPH-1 cells. It indicated that EGCG could attenuate testosterone-induced BPH and fibrosis.

Recent advances in understanding acute respiratory distress syndrome

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is characterized by acute diffuse lung injury, which results in increased pulmonary vascular permeability and loss of aerated lung tissue. This causes bilateral opacity consistent with pulmonary edema, hypoxemia, increased venous admixture, and decreased lung compliance such that patients with ARDS need supportive care in the intensive care unit to maintain oxygenation and prevent adverse outcomes. Recently, advances in understanding the underlying pathophysiology of ARDS led to new approaches in managing these patients. In this review, we want to focus on recent scientific evidence in the field of ARDS research and discuss promising new developments in the treatment of this disease.

MicroRNA: Dynamic Regulators of Macrophage Polarization and Plasticity

The ability of a healthy immune system to clear the plethora of antigens it encounters incessantly relies on the enormous plasticity displayed by the comprising cell types. Macrophages (MΦs) are crucial member of the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS) that constantly patrol the peripheral tissues and are actively recruited to the sites of injury and infection. In tissues, infiltrating monocytes replenish MΦ. Under the guidance of the local micro-milieu, MΦ can be activated to acquire specialized functional phenotypes. Similar to T cells, functional polarization of macrophage phenotype viz., inflammatory (M1) and reparative (M2) is proposed. Equipped with diverse toll-like receptors (TLRs), these cells of the innate arm of immunity recognize and phagocytize antigens and secrete cytokines that activate the adaptive arm of the immune system and perform key roles in wound repair. Dysregulation of MΦ plasticity has been associated with various diseases and infection. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as critical regulators of transcriptome output. Their importance in maintaining health, and their contribution toward disease, encompasses virtually all aspects of human biology. Our understanding of miRNA-mediated regulation of MΦ plasticity and polarization can be utilized to modulate functional phenotypes to counter their role in the pathogenesis of numerous disease, including cancer, autoimmunity, periodontitis, etc. Here, we provide an overview of current knowledge regarding the role of miRNA in shaping MΦ polarization and plasticity through targeting of various pathways and genes. Identification of miRNA biomarkers of diagnostic/prognostic value and their therapeutic potential by delivery of miRNA mimics or inhibitors to dynamically alter gene expression profiles in vivo is highlighted.

Potential ameliorative effects of grape seed-derived polyphenols against cadmium induced prostatic deficits

Grape (Vitis vinifera) is consumed as fruit and wine for people. In this study, rat model of prostatic deficits was induced by orally receiving 60mg/L cadmium chlorine (CdCl₂) through drinking water for 20 weeks. Grape seed-derived polyphenols extract (GSP) was orally given for 20 weeks. Finally, the prostatic levels of E-cadherin, fibronectin, and α-smooth muscle actin were measured by immunohistochemical and qPCR analysis. The oxidative stress was measured by detecting the levels of malondialdehyde, nitric oxide, reduced glutathione/oxidized glutathione and enzymatic antioxidant status. Additionally, the prostatic expressions of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), type I TGF-β receptor (TGF-βRI), Smad3, phosphorylation-Smad3 (p-Smad3), Smad7, nuclear related factor-2 (Nrf-2), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and γ-glutamate cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (γ-GCLC) were measured by western blot. The levels of microRNA (miR)-133a/b were measured by qPCR. It was observed that GSP ameliorated the prostatic oxidative stress and fibrosis induced by CdCl₂. GSP also inhibited the over-generation of TGF-β1 and p-Smad3, as well as enhanced the levels of Smad7, Nrf-2, HO-1, γ-GCLC and miR-133a/b. These results showed that GSP could attenuate Cd-induced prostatic deficits.

Lung epithelial GM-CSF improves host defense function and epithelial repair in influenza virus pneumonia-a new therapeutic strategy?

Influenza viruses (IVs) circulate seasonally and are a common cause of respiratory infections in pediatric and adult patients. Additionally, recurrent pandemics cause massive morbidity and mortality worldwide. Infection may result in rapid progressive viral pneumonia with fatal outcome. Since accurate treatment strategies are still missing, research refocuses attention to lung pathology and cellular crosstalk to develop new therapeutic options.

Alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) play an important role in orchestrating the pulmonary antiviral host response. After IV infection they release a cascade of immune mediators, one of which is granulocyte and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). GM-CSF is known to promote differentiation, activation and mobilization of myeloid cells. In the lung, GM-CSF drives immune functions of alveolar macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) and also improves epithelial repair processes through direct interaction with AECs. During IV infection, AEC-derived GM-CSF shows a lung-protective effect that is also present after local GM-CSF application. This mini-review provides an overview on GM-CSF-modulated immune responses to IV pneumonia and its therapeutic potential in severe IV pneumonia.

miRNA-133a attenuates lipid accumulation via TR4-CD36 pathway in macrophages

lipid metabolism is the major causes of atherosclerosis. There is increasing evidence that miR-133a plays an important role in atherosclerosis. However, the regulatory mechanism of miR-133a in macrophages is still unclear. Several lines of evidence indicate that loss of TR4 leads to reduce lipid accumulation in liver and adipose tissues, etc, and lesional macrophages-derived TR4 can greatly increase the foam cell formation through increasing the CD36-mediated the uptake of ox-LDL. Interestingly, computational analysis suggests that TR4 may be a target gene of miR-133a. Here, we examined whether miR-133a regulates TR4 expression in ox-LDL-induced mouse RAW 264.7 macrophages, thereby affecting lipid accumulation. Using ox-LDL-treatment RAW 264.7 macrophages transfected with miR-133a mimics or inhibitors, we have showed that miR-133a can directly regulate the expression of TR4 in RAW 264.7 cells, thereby attenuates CD36-medide lipid accumulation. Furthermore, our studies suggest an additional explanation for the regulatory mechanism of miR-133a regulation to its functional target, TR4 in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Thus, our findings suggest that miR-133a may regulate lipid accumulation in ox-LDL-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages via TR4-CD36 pathway.

MicroRNA Regulation of Acute Lung Injury and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

The acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), a severe form of acute lung injury (ALI), is a very common condition associated with critically ill patients, which causes substantial morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite decades of research, effective therapeutic strategies for clinical ALI/ARDS are not available. In recent years, microRNAs (miRNAs), small non-coding molecules have emerged as a major area of biomedical research as they post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression in diverse biological and pathological processes, including ALI/ARDS. In this context, this present review summarizes a large body of evidence implicating miRNAs and their target molecules in ALI/ARDS originating largely from studies using animal and cell culture model systems of ALI/ARDS. We have also focused on the involvement of miRNAs in macrophage polarization, which play a critical role in regulating the pathogenesis of ALI/ARDS. Finally, the possible future directions that might lead to novel therapeutic strategies for the treatment of ALI/ARDS are also reviewed. J. Cell. Physiol. 231: 2097-2106, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Roles of the canonical myomiRs miR-1, -133 and -206 in cell development and disease

MicroRNAs are small non-coding RNAs that participate in different biological processes, providing subtle combinational regulation of cellular pathways, often by regulating components of signalling pathways. Aberrant expression of miRNAs is an important factor in the development and progression of disease. The canonical myomiRs (miR-1, -133 and -206) are central to the development and health of mammalian skeletal and cardiac muscles, but new findings show they have regulatory roles in the development of other mammalian non-muscle tissues, including nerve, brain structures, adipose and some specialised immunological cells. Moreover, the deregulation of myomiR expression is associated with a variety of different cancers, where typically they have tumor suppressor functions, although examples of an oncogenic role illustrate their diverse function in different cell environments. This review examines the involvement of the related myomiRs at the crossroads between cell development/tissue regeneration/tissue inflammation responses, and cancer development.

Polymorphisms in key pulmonary inflammatory pathways and the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome

PURPOSE/AIM

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) is an important clinical and public health problem. Why some at-risk individuals develop ARDS and others do not is unclear but may be related to differences in inflammatory and cell signaling systems. The Receptor for Advanced Glycation Endproducts (RAGE) and Granulocyte-Monocyte Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) pathways have recently been implicated in pulmonary pathophysiology; whether genetic variation within these pathways contributes to ARDS risk or outcome is unknown.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We studied 842 patients from three centers in Utah and 14 non-Utah ARDS Network centers. We studied patients at risk for ARDS and patients with ARDS to determine whether Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) in the RAGE and GM-CSF pathways were associated with development of ARDS. We studied 29 SNPs in 5 genes within the two pathways and controlled for age, sepsis as ARDS risk factor, and severity of illness, while targeting a false discovery rate of ≤ 5%. In a secondary analysis we evaluated associations with mortality.

RESULTS

Of 842 patients, 690 had ARDS, and 152 were at-risk. Sepsis was the risk factor for ARDS in 250 (30%) patients. When controlling for age, APACHE III score, sepsis as risk factor, and multiple comparisons, no SNPs were significantly associated with ARDS. In a secondary analysis, only rs743564 in CSF2 approached significance with regard to mortality (OR 2.17, unadjusted p = 0.005, adjusted p = 0.15).

CONCLUSIONS

Candidate SNPs within 5 genes in the RAGE and GM-CSF pathways were not significantly associated with development of ARDS in this multi-centric cohort.

Contrasting effects of hyperoxia on GM-CSF gene transcription in alveolar epithelial cells and T cells

Granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is critically important for normal pulmonary innate immunity and for functional maturation of alveolar macrophages. Alveolar epithelial cells (AEC) are a major source of GM-CSF in the lung and express this growth factor constitutively, whereas most other cells, including T cells, express GM-CSF following inflammatory stimulation. AEC expression of GM-CSF is suppressed by oxidative stress, at least in part through induction of microRNA leading to increased mRNA turnover. In this report, we compare and contrast the effect of hyperoxia on transcriptional aspects of gene regulation of GM-CSF in lung epithelia and T cells of human and mouse origin. Similar to primary murine AEC, human H820 cells that express multiple characteristics of normal alveolar epithelial cells express GM-CSF constitutively, with decreased expression and increased mRNA turnover following exposure to hyperoxia. In contrast, hyperoxia induces augmented GM-CSF expression in human and murine activated T cells, in association with enhanced GM-CSF mRNA stability. Alveolar epithelial cells demonstrate constitutive transcription, with the proximal promoter in an open configuration in normoxia, without change in hyperoxia. Conversely, in both human and murine T cells, hyperoxia increased GM-CSF gene transcription. The proximal promoter was in a closed configuration in unstimulated T cells but became accessible upon activation and still more accessible in activated T cells exposed to hyperoxia. These fundamental differences in molecular regulation of GM-CSF expression highlight the distinctive niche of alveolar epithelial cell expression of GM-CSF and offer insights into the biology of GM-CSF in the setting of acute lung injury.

Prognostic and biologic significance of DNMT3B expression in older patients with cytogenetically normal primary acute myeloid leukemia

DNMT3B encodes a DNA methyltransferase implicated in aberrant epigenetic changes contributing to leukemogenesis. We tested whether DNMT3B expression, measured by NanoString nCounter assay, associates with outcome, gene and microRNA expression and DNA methylation profiles in 210 older (⩾60 years) adults with primary, cytogenetically normal acute myeloid leukemia (CN-AML). Patients were dichotomized into high versus low expressers using median cut. Outcomes were assessed in the context of known CN-AML prognosticators. Gene and microRNA expression, and DNA methylation profiles were analyzed using microarrays and MethylCap-sequencing, respectively. High DNMT3B expressers had fewer complete remissions (CR; P=0.002) and shorter disease-free (DFS; P=0.02) and overall (OS; P<0.001) survival. In multivariable analyses, high DNMT3B expression remained an independent predictor of lower CR rates (P=0.04) and shorter DFS (P=0.04) and OS (P=0.001). High DNMT3B expression associated with a gene expression profile comprising 363 genes involved in differentiation, proliferation and survival pathways, but with only four differentially expressed microRNAs (miR-133b, miR-148a, miR-122, miR-409-3p) and no differential DNA methylation regions. We conclude that high DNMT3B expression independently associates with adverse outcome in older CN-AML patients. Gene expression analyses suggest that DNMT3B is involved in the modulation of several genes, although the regulatory mechanisms remain to be investigated to devise therapeutic approaches specific for these patients.

MicroRNA-133α regulates neurotensin-associated colonic inflammation in colonic epithelial cells and experimental colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's Disease (CD) are the two most common forms of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD) marked by chronic and persistent inflammation. Neurotensin (NT), together with its receptor, NT receptor 1 (NTR1), are important mediators in intestinal inflammation and their expression is upregulated in the intestine of experimental colitis models and UC colonic biopsies. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short, non-coding RNA molecules which act as transcription repressors. We have previously shown that NT exposure upregulates miR-133α expression in human colonocytes NCM460 cells overexpressing NTR1 (NCM460-NTR1). Recently, miR-133α was further examined forits role in NT-associated proinflammatory signaling cascades and acute colitis in vivo. Our study shows that NT-induced miR-133α upregulation modulates NF-κB phosphorylation and promotes proinflammatory cytokine production. In addition, intracolonicinjection of antisense-miR-133α before colitis induction improves histological scores and proinflammatory cytokine transcription. More importantly, dysregulation of miR-133α levels and aftiphilin (AFTPH), a newly-identified miR-133α downstream target, is found only in UC patients, but not in patients with CD. Taken together, we identified NTR1/miR-133α/aftiphilin as a novel regulatory axis involved in NT-associated colonic inflammation in human colonocytes, acute colitis mouse model and in colonic biopsies from UC patients. Our results also provide evidence that colonic levels of NTR1, miR-133α and aftiphilin may also serve as potential biomarkers in UC.

Alcoholism: A systemic proinflammatory condition

Excessive ethanol consumption affects virtually any organ, both by indirect and direct mechanisms. Considerable research in the last two decades has widened the knowledge about the paramount importance of proinflammatory cytokines and oxidative damage in the pathogenesis of many of the systemic manifestations of alcoholism. These cytokines derive primarily from activated Kupffer cells exposed to Gram-negative intestinal bacteria, which reach the liver in supra-physiological amounts due to ethanol-mediated increased gut permeability. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) that enhance the inflammatory response are generated both by activation of Kupffer cells and by the direct metabolic effects of ethanol. The effects of this increased cytokine secretion and ROS generation lie far beyond liver damage. In addition to the classic consequences of endotoxemia associated with liver cirrhosis that were described several decades ago, important research in the last ten years has shown that cytokines may also induce damage in remote organs such as brain, bone, muscle, heart, lung, gonads, peripheral nerve, and pancreas. These effects are even seen in alcoholics without significant liver disease. Therefore, alcoholism can be viewed as an inflammatory condition, a concept which opens the possibility of using new therapeutic weapons to treat some of the complications of this devastating and frequent disease. In this review we examine some of the most outstanding consequences of the altered cytokine regulation that occurs in alcoholics in organs other than the liver.