The h-region of twin-arginine signal peptides supports productive binding of bacterial Tat precursor proteins to the TatBC receptor complex

Advancements in Escherichia coli secretion systems for enhanced recombinant protein production

Escherichia coli is inarguably one of the most studied microorganisms across the spectrum of microbiology. It is very widely used in recombinant protein production owing to its rapid growth, ease of genetic manipulation, and relatively high protein yields. Despite all of its advantages, its inability to efficiently secrete proteins naturally remains a drawback leading to protein aggregation as inclusion bodies in the cytoplasm and consequent low overall protein yield. Therefore, many approaches to mitigate this weakness and enhance extracellular secretion to increase protein yield have been devised. This review explores the natural and engineered secretion systems in E. coli, highlighting their potential for enhanced protein secretion for non-glycosylated proteins. Natural one-step (e.g., Type I and III Secretion Systems) and two-step systems (e.g., Sec and Tat pathways) are detailed alongside recent advancements in genetic engineering, mutagenesis, and synthetic biology approaches aimed at improving protein yield, folding, and secretion efficiency. Emerging technologies, such as the ESETEC® and BacSec® platforms, promise scalable and cost-effective solutions for higher protein production. Challenges, including limited cellular capabilities and protein aggregation, are addressed through innovative strategies like cell wall modification, co-expression of chaperones, and medium optimization. This review emphasizes E. coli's adaptability to industrial applications, and the promising future of recombinant protein technologies.

Functional small peptides for enhanced protein delivery, solubility, and secretion in microbial biotechnology

In microbial biotechnology, there is a constant demand for functional peptides to give new functionality to engineered proteins to address problems such as direct delivery of functional proteins into bacterial cells, enhanced protein solubility during the expression of recombinant proteins, and efficient protein secretion from bacteria. To tackle these critical issues, we selected three types of functional small peptides: cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) enable the delivery of diverse cargoes into bacterial cytoplasm for a variety of purposes, protein-solubilizing peptide tags demonstrate remarkable efficiency in solubilizing recombinant proteins without folding interference, and signal peptides play a key role in enabling the secretion of recombinant proteins from bacterial cells. In this review, we introduced these three functional small peptides that offer effective solutions to address emerging problems in microbial biotechnology. Additionally, we summarized various engineering efforts aimed at enhancing the activity and performance of these peptides, thereby providing valuable insights into their potential for further applications.

Liquid-Liquid Phase Transition Drives Intra-chloroplast Cargo Sorting

In eukaryotic cells, organelle biogenesis is pivotal for cellular function and cell survival. Chloroplasts are unique organelles with a complex internal membrane network. The mechanisms of the migration of imported nuclear-encoded chloroplast proteins across the crowded stroma to thylakoid membranes are less understood. Here, we identified two Arabidopsis ankyrin-repeat proteins, STT1 and STT2, that specifically mediate sorting of chloroplast twin arginine translocation (cpTat) pathway proteins to thylakoid membranes. STT1 and STT2 form a unique hetero-dimer through interaction of their C-terminal ankyrin domains. Binding of cpTat substrate by N-terminal intrinsically disordered regions of STT complex induces liquid-liquid phase separation. The multivalent nature of STT oligomer is critical for phase separation. STT-Hcf106 interactions reverse phase separation and facilitate cargo targeting and translocation across thylakoid membranes. Thus, the formation of phase-separated droplets emerges as a novel mechanism of intra-chloroplast cargo sorting. Our findings highlight a conserved mechanism of phase separation in regulating organelle biogenesis.

Targeting of proteins to the twin-arginine translocation pathway

The twin-arginine protein transport (Tat pathway) is found in prokaryotes and plant organelles and transports folded proteins across membranes. Targeting of substrates to the Tat system is mediated by the presence of an N-terminal signal sequence containing a highly conserved twin-arginine motif. The Tat machinery comprises membrane proteins from the TatA and TatC families. Assembly of the Tat translocon is dynamic and is triggered by the interaction of a Tat substrate with the Tat receptor complex. This review will summarise recent advances in our understanding of Tat transport, focusing in particular on the roles played by Tat signal peptides in protein targeting and translocation.

Cross-Species Functional Conservation and Possible Origin of the N-Terminal Specificity Domain of Mitochondrial Presequences

Plants have two endosymbiotic organelles, chloroplast and mitochondrion. Although they have their own genomes, proteome assembly in these organelles depends on the import of proteins encoded by the nuclear genome. Previously, we elucidated the general design principles of chloroplast and mitochondrial targeting signals, transit peptide, and presequence, respectively, which are highly diverse in primary structure. Both targeting signals are composed of N-terminal specificity domain and C-terminal translocation domain. Especially, the N-terminal specificity domain of mitochondrial presequences contains multiple arginine residues and hydrophobic sequence motif. In this study we investigated whether the design principles of plant mitochondrial presequences can be applied to those in other eukaryotic species. We provide evidence that both presequences and import mechanisms are remarkably conserved throughout the species. In addition, we present evidence that the N-terminal specificity domain of presequence might have evolved from the bacterial TAT (twin-arginine translocation) signal sequence.

Surface-exposed domains of TatB involved in the structural and functional assembly of the Tat translocase in Escherichia coli

Twin-arginine-dependent translocases transport folded proteins across bacterial, archaeal, and chloroplast membranes. Upon substrate binding, they assemble from hexahelical TatC and single-spanning TatA and TatB membrane proteins. Although structural and functional details of individual Tat subunits have been reported previously, the sequence and dynamics of Tat translocase assembly remain to be determined. Employing the zero-space cross-linker N,N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD) in combination with LC-MS/MS, we identified as yet unknown intra- and intermolecular contact sites of TatB and TatC. In addition to their established intramembrane binding sites, both proteins were thus found to contact each other through the soluble N terminus of TatC and the interhelical linker region around the conserved glutamyl residue Glu⁴⁹ of TatB from Escherichia coli Functional analyses suggested that by interacting with the TatC N terminus, TatB improves the formation of a proficient substrate recognition site of TatC. The Glu⁴⁹ region of TatB was found also to contact distinct downstream sites of a neighboring TatB molecule and to thereby mediate oligomerization of TatB within the TatBC receptor complex. Finally, we show that global DCCD-mediated cross-linking of TatB and TatC in membrane vesicles or, alternatively, creating covalently linked TatC oligomers prevents TatA from occupying a position close to the TatBC-bound substrate. Collectively, our results are consistent with a circular arrangement of the TatB and TatC units within the TatBC receptor complex and with TatA entering the interior TatBC-binding cavity through lateral gates between TatBC protomers.

Inner Membrane Translocases and Insertases

The inner membrane of Gram-negative bacteria is a ~6 nm thick phospholipid bilayer. It forms a semi-permeable barrier between the cytoplasm and periplasm allowing only regulated export and import of ions, sugar polymers, DNA and proteins. Inner membrane proteins, embedded via hydrophobic transmembrane α-helices, play an essential role in this regulated trafficking: they mediate insertion into the membrane (insertases) or complete crossing of the membrane (translocases) or both. The Gram-negative inner membrane is equipped with a variety of different insertases and translocases. Many of them are specialized, taking care of the export of only a few protein substrates, while others have more general roles. Here, we focus on the three general export/insertion pathways, the secretory (Sec) pathway, YidC and the twin-arginine translocation (TAT) pathway, focusing closely on the Escherichia coli (E. coli) paradigm. We only briefly mention dedicated export pathways found in different Gram-negative bacteria. The Sec system deals with the majority of exported proteins and functions both as a translocase for secretory proteins and an insertase for membrane proteins. The insertase YidC assists the Sec system or operates independently on membrane protein clients. Sec and YidC, in common with most export pathways, require their protein clients to be in soluble non-folded states to fit through the translocation channels and grooves. The TAT pathway is an exception, as it translocates folded proteins, some loaded with prosthetic groups.

Routing of thylakoid lumen proteins by the chloroplast twin arginine transport pathway

Thylakoids are complex sub-organellar membrane systems whose role in photosynthesis makes them critical to life. Thylakoids require the coordinated expression of both nuclear- and plastid-encoded proteins to allow rapid response to changing environmental conditions. Transport of cytoplasmically synthesized proteins to thylakoids or the thylakoid lumen is complex; the process involves transport across up to three membrane systems with routing through three aqueous compartments. Protein transport in thylakoids is accomplished by conserved ancestral prokaryotic plasma membrane translocases containing novel adaptations for the sub-organellar location. This review focuses on the evolutionarily conserved chloroplast twin arginine transport (cpTat) pathway. An overview is provided of known aspects of the cpTat components, energy requirements, and mechanisms with a focus on recent discoveries. Some of the most exciting new studies have been in determining the structural architecture of the membrane complex involved in forming the point of passage for the precursor and binding features of the translocase components. The cpTat system is of particular interest because it transports folded protein domains using only the proton motive force for energy. The implications for mechanism of translocation by recent studies focusing on interactions between membrane Tat components and with the translocating precursor will be discussed.

Signal peptides for recombinant protein secretion in bacterial expression systems

The secretion of biotechnologically or pharmaceutically relevant recombinant proteins into the culture supernatant of a bacterial expression host greatly facilitates their downstream processing and significantly reduces the production costs. The first step during the secretion of a desired target protein into the growth medium is its transport across the cytoplasmic membrane. In bacteria, two major export pathways, the general secretion or Sec pathway and the twin-arginine translocation or Tat pathway, exist for the transport of proteins across the plasma membrane. The routing into one of these alternative protein export systems requires the fusion of a Sec- or Tat-specific signal peptide to the amino-terminal end of the desired target protein. Since signal peptides, besides being required for the targeting to and membrane translocation by the respective protein translocases, also have additional influences on the biosynthesis, the folding kinetics, and the stability of the respective target proteins, it is not possible so far to predict in advance which signal peptide will perform best in the context of a given target protein and a given bacterial expression host. As outlined in this review, the most promising way to find the optimal signal peptide for a desired protein is to screen the largest possible diversity of signal peptides, either generated by signal peptide variation using large signal peptide libraries or, alternatively, by optimization of a given signal peptide using site-directed or random mutagenesis strategies.

The early mature part of bacterial twin-arginine translocation (Tat) precursor proteins contributes to TatBC receptor binding

The twin-arginine translocation (Tat) pathway transports folded proteins across bacterial membranes. Tat precursor proteins possess a conserved twin-arginine (RR) motif in their signal peptides that is involved in the binding of the proteins to the membrane-associated TatBC receptor complex. In addition, the hydrophobic region in the Tat signal peptides also contributes to TatBC binding, but whether regions beyond the signal-peptide cleavage site are involved in this process is unknown. Here, we analyzed the contribution of the early mature protein part of the Escherichia coli trimethylamine N-oxide reductase (TorA) to productive TatBC receptor binding. We identified substitutions in the 30 amino acids immediately following the TorA signal peptide (30aa-region) that restored export of a transport-defective TorA[KQ]-30aa-MalE precursor, in which the RR residues had been replaced by a lysine-glutamine pair. Some of these substitutions increased the hydrophobicity of the N-terminal part of the 30aa-region and thereby likely enhanced hydrophobic substrate-receptor interactions within the hydrophobic TatBC substrate-binding cavity. Another class of substitutions increased the positive net charge of the region's C-terminal part, presumably leading to strengthened electrostatic interactions between the mature substrate part and the cytoplasmic TatBC regions. Furthermore, we identified substitutions in the C-terminal domains of TatB following the transmembrane segment that restored transport of various transport-defective TorA-MalE derivatives. Some of these substitutions most likely affected the orientation or conformation of the flexible, carboxy-proximal helices of TatB. Therefore, we propose that a tight accommodation of the folded mature region by TatB contributes to productive binding of Tat substrates to TatBC.

Precursor-Receptor Interactions in the Twin Arginine Protein Transport Pathway Probed with a New Receptor Complex Preparation

The twin arginine translocation (Tat) system moves folded proteins across the cytoplasmic membrane of bacteria and the thylakoid membrane of plant chloroplasts. Signal peptide-bearing substrates of the Tat pathway (precursor proteins) are recognized at the membrane by the TatBC receptor complex. The only established preparation of the TatBC complex uses the detergent digitonin, rendering it unsuitable for biophysical analysis. Here we show that the detergent glyco-diosgenin (GDN) can be used in place of digitonin to isolate homogeneous TatBC complexes that bind precursor proteins with physiological specificity. We use this new preparation to quantitatively characterize TatBC-precursor interactions in a fully defined system. Additionally, we show that the GDN-solubilized TatBC complex co-purifies with substantial quantities of phospholipids.

Unanticipated functional diversity among the TatA-type components of the Tat protein translocase

Twin-arginine translocation (Tat) systems transport folded proteins that harbor a conserved arginine pair in their signal peptides. They assemble from hexahelical TatC-type and single-spanning TatA-type proteins. Many Tat systems comprise two functionally diverse, TatA-type proteins, denominated TatA and TatB. Some bacteria in addition express TatE, which thus far has been characterized as a functional surrogate of TatA. For the Tat system of Escherichia coli we demonstrate here that different from TatA but rather like TatB, TatE contacts a Tat signal peptide independently of the proton-motive force and restricts the premature processing of a Tat signal peptide. Furthermore, TatE embarks at the transmembrane helix five of TatC where it becomes so closely spaced to TatB that both proteins can be covalently linked by a zero-space cross-linker. Our results suggest that in addition to TatB and TatC, TatE is a further component of the Tat substrate receptor complex. Consistent with TatE being an autonomous TatAB-type protein, a bioinformatics analysis revealed a relatively broad distribution of the tatE gene in bacterial phyla and highlighted unique protein sequence features of TatE orthologs.

Structural features of the TatC membrane protein that determine docking and insertion of a twin-arginine signal peptide

Twin-arginine translocation (Tat) systems transport folded proteins across cellular membranes with the concerted action of mostly three membrane proteins: TatA, TatB, and TatC. Hetero-oligomers of TatB and TatC form circular substrate-receptor complexes with a central binding cavity for twin-arginine-containing signal peptides. After binding of the substrate, energy from an electro-chemical proton gradient is transduced into the recruitment of TatA oligomers and into the actual translocation event. We previously reported that Tat-dependent protein translocation into membrane vesicles of Escherichia coli is blocked by the compound N,N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD, DCC). We have now identified a highly conserved glutamate residue in the transmembrane region of E. coli TatC, which when modified by DCCD interferes with the deep insertion of a Tat signal peptide into the TatBC receptor complex. Our findings are consistent with a hydrophobic binding cavity formed by TatB and TatC inside the lipid bilayer. Moreover, we found that DCCD mediates discrete intramolecular cross-links of E. coli TatC involving both its N- and C-tails. These results confirm the close proximity of two distant sequence sections of TatC proposed to concertedly function as the primary docking site for twin-arginine signal peptides.