A screen for novel phosphoinositide 3-kinase effector proteins

Prominosomes - a particular class of extracellular vesicles containing prominin-1/CD133?

Extracellular membrane vesicles (EVs) offer promising values in various medical fields, e.g., as biomarkers in liquid biopsies or as native (or bioengineered) biological nanocarriers in tissue engineering, regenerative medicine and cancer therapy. Based on their cellular origin EVs can vary considerably in composition and diameter. Cell biological studies on mammalian prominin-1, a cholesterol-binding membrane glycoprotein, have helped to reveal new donor membranes as sources of EVs. For instance, small EVs can originate from microvilli and primary cilia, while large EVs might be produced by transient structures such as retracting cellular extremities of cancer cells during the mitotic rounding process, and the midbody at the end of cytokinesis. Here, we will highlight the various subcellular origins of prominin-1+ EVs, also called prominosomes, and the potential mechanism(s) regulating their formation. We will further discuss the molecular and cellular characteristics of prominin-1, notably those that have a direct effect on the release of prominin-1+ EVs, a process that might be directly implicated in donor cell reprogramming of stem and cancer stem cells. Prominin-1+ EVs also mediate intercellular communication during embryonic development and adult homeostasis in healthy individuals, while disseminating biological information during diseases.

Polyphosphoinositides in the nucleus: Roadmap of their effectors and mechanisms of interaction

Biomolecular interactions between proteins and polyphosphoinositides (PPIn) are essential in the regulation of the vast majority of cellular processes. Consequently, alteration of these interactions is implicated in the development of many diseases. PPIn are phosphorylated derivatives of phosphatidylinositol and consist of seven species with different phosphate combinations. PPIn signal by recruiting proteins via canonical domains or short polybasic motifs. Although their actions are predominantly documented on cytoplasmic membranes, six of the seven PPIn are present within the nucleus together with the PPIn kinases, phosphatases and phospholipases that regulate their turnover. Importantly, the contribution of nuclear PPIn in the regulation of nuclear processes has led to an increased recognition of their importance compared to their more accepted cytoplasmic roles. This review summarises our knowledge on the identification and functional characterisation of nuclear PPIn-effector proteins as well as their mode of interactions, which tend to favour polybasic motifs.

Insights into the Development of the Adult Leydig Cell Lineage from Stem Leydig Cells

Adult Leydig cells (ALCs) are the steroidogenic cells in the testes that produce testosterone. ALCs develop postnatally from a pool of stem cells, referred to as stem Leydig cells (SLCs). SLCs are spindle-shaped cells that lack steroidogenic cell markers, including luteinizing hormone (LH) receptor and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. The commitment of SLCs into the progenitor Leydig cells (PLCs), the first stage in the lineage, requires growth factors, including Dessert Hedgehog (DHH) and platelet-derived growth factor-AA. PLCs are still spindle-shaped, but become steroidogenic and produce mainly androsterone. The next transition in the lineage is from PLC to the immature Leydig cell (ILC). This transition requires LH, DHH, and androgen. ILCs are ovoid cells that are competent for producing a different form of androgen, androstanediol. The final stage in the developmental lineage is ALC. The transition to ALC involves the reduced expression of 5α-reductase 1, a step that is necessary to make the cells to produce testosterone as the final product. The transitions along the Leydig cell lineage are associated with the progressive down-regulation of the proliferative activity, and the up-regulation of steroidogenic capacity, with each step requiring unique regulatory signaling.

In-depth PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 signalosome analysis identifies DAPP1 as a negative regulator of GPVI-driven platelet function

The class I phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) isoforms play important roles in platelet priming, activation, and stable thrombus formation. Class I PI3Ks predominantly regulate cell function through their catalytic product, the signaling phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate [PtdIns(3,4,5)P₃], which coordinates the localization and/or activity of a diverse range of binding proteins. Notably, the complete repertoire of these class I PI3K effectors in platelets remains unknown, limiting mechanistic understanding of class I PI3K-mediated control of platelet function. We measured robust agonist-driven PtdIns (3,4,5)P₃ generation in human platelets by lipidomic mass spectrometry (MS), and then used affinity-capture coupled to high-resolution proteomic MS to identify the targets of PtdIns (3,4,5)P₃ in these cells. We reveal for the first time a diverse platelet PtdIns(3,4,5)P₃ interactome, including kinases, signaling adaptors, and regulators of small GTPases, many of which are previously uncharacterized in this cell type. Of these, we show dual adaptor for phosphotyrosine and 3-phosphoinositides (DAPP1) to be regulated by Src-family kinases and PI3K, while platelets from DAPP1-deficient mice display enhanced thrombus formation on collagen in vitro. This was associated with enhanced platelet α/δ granule secretion and α_IIbβ₃ integrin activation downstream of the collagen receptor glycoprotein VI. Thus, we present the first comprehensive analysis of the PtdIns(3,4,5)P₃ signalosome of human platelets and identify DAPP1 as a novel negative regulator of platelet function. This work provides important new insights into how class I PI3Ks shape platelet function.

IQGAP1 is a phosphoinositide effector and kinase scaffold

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI4,5P2) is a lipid messenger that regulates a wide variety of cellular functions. The majority of cellular PI4,5P2 is generated by isoforms of the type I phosphatidylinositol phosphate kinases (PIPKI) that are generated from three genes, and each PIPKI isoform has a unique distribution and function in cells. It has been shown that the signaling specificity of PI4,5P2 can be determined by a physical association of PIPKs with PI4,5P2 effectors. IQGAP1 is newly identified as an interactor of multiple isoforms of PIPKs. Considering the versatile roles of IQGAP1 in cellular signaling pathways, IQGAP1 may confer isoform-specific roles of PIPKs in distinct cellular locations. In this mini review, the emerging roles of PIPKs that are regulated by an association with IQGAP1 will be summarized. Focuses will be on cell migration, vesicle trafficking, cell signaling, and nuclear events.

Class I PI 3-kinases: Function and evolution

In many human cell types, the class I phosphoinositide 3-kinases play key roles in the control of diverse cellular processes including growth, proliferation, survival and polarity. This is achieved through their activation by many cell surface receptors, leading to the synthesis of the phosphoinositide lipid signal, PIP3, which in turn influences the function of numerous direct PIP3-binding proteins. Here we review PI3K pathway biology and analyse the evolutionary distribution of its components and their functions. The broad phylogenetic distribution of class I PI3Ks in metazoa, amoebozoa and choannoflagellates, implies that these enzymes evolved in single celled organisms and were later co-opted into metazoan intercellular communication. A similar distribution is evident for the AKT and Cytohesin groups of downstream PIP3-binding proteins, with other effectors and pathway components appearing to evolve later. The genomic and functional phylogeny of regulatory systems such as the PI3K pathway provides a framework to improve our understanding of the mechanisms by which key cellular processes are controlled in humans.

PIP kinases define PI4,5P₂signaling specificity by association with effectors

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI4,5P₂) is an essential lipid messenger with roles in all eukaryotes and most aspects of human physiology. By controlling the targeting and activity of its effectors, PI4,5P₂modulates processes, such as cell migration, vesicular trafficking, cellular morphogenesis, signaling and gene expression. In cells, PI4,5P₂has a much higher concentration than other phosphoinositide species and its total content is largely unchanged in response to extracellular stimuli. The discovery of a vast array of PI4,5P₂ binding proteins is consistent with data showing that the majority of cellular PI4,5P₂is sequestered. This supports a mechanism where PI4,5P₂functions as a localized and highly specific messenger. Further support of this mechanism comes from the de novo synthesis of PI4,5P₂which is often linked with PIP kinase interaction with PI4,5P₂effectors and is a mechanism to define specificity of PI4,5P₂signaling. The association of PI4,5P₂-generating enzymes with PI4,5P₂effectors regulate effector function both temporally and spatially in cells. In this review, the PI4,5P₂effectors whose functions are tightly regulated by associations with PI4,5P₂-generating enzymes will be discussed. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Phosphoinositides.

The biology of IQGAP proteins: beyond the cytoskeleton

IQGAP scaffold proteins are evolutionarily conserved in eukaryotes and facilitate the formation of complexes that regulate cytoskeletal dynamics, intracellular signaling, and intercellular interactions. Fungal and mammalian IQGAPs are implicated in cytokinesis. IQGAP1, IQGAP2, and IQGAP3 have diverse roles in vertebrate physiology, operating in the kidney, nervous system, cardio-vascular system, pancreas, and lung. The functions of IQGAPs can be corrupted during oncogenesis and are usurped by microbial pathogens. Therefore, IQGAPs represent intriguing candidates for novel therapeutic agents. While modulation of the cytoskeletal architecture was initially thought to be the primary function of IQGAPs, it is now clear that they have roles beyond the cytoskeleton. This review describes contributions of IQGAPs to physiology at the organism level.

IQGAPs choreograph cellular signaling from the membrane to the nucleus

Since its discovery in 1994, recognized cellular functions for the scaffold protein IQGAP1 have expanded immensely. Over 100 unique IQGAP1-interacting proteins have been identified, implicating IQGAP1 as a critical integrator of cellular signaling pathways. Initial research established functions for IQGAP1 in cell-cell adhesion, cell migration, and cell signaling. Recent studies have revealed additional IQGAP1 binding partners, expanding the biological roles of IQGAP1. These include crosstalk between signaling cascades, regulation of nuclear function, and Wnt pathway potentiation. Investigation of the IQGAP2 and IQGAP3 homologs demonstrates unique functions, some of which differ from those of IQGAP1. Summarized here are recent observations that enhance our understanding of IQGAP proteins in the integration of diverse signaling pathways.

The Cdc42 guanine nucleotide exchange factor FGD6 coordinates cell polarity and endosomal membrane recycling in osteoclasts

The initial step of bone digestion is the adhesion of osteoclasts onto bone surfaces and the assembly of podosomal belts that segregate the bone-facing ruffled membrane from other membrane domains. During bone digestion, membrane components of the ruffled border also need to be recycled after macropinocytosis of digested bone materials. How osteoclast polarity and membrane recycling are coordinated remains unknown. Here, we show that the Cdc42-guanine nucleotide exchange factor FGD6 coordinates these events through its Src-dependent interaction with different actin-based protein networks. At the plasma membrane, FGD6 couples cell adhesion and actin dynamics by regulating podosome formation through the assembly of complexes comprising the Cdc42-interactor IQGAP1, the Rho GTPase-activating protein ARHGAP10, and the integrin interactors Talin-1/2 or Filamin A. On endosomes and transcytotic vesicles, FGD6 regulates retromer-dependent membrane recycling through its interaction with the actin nucleation-promoting factor WASH. These results provide a mechanism by which a single Cdc42-exchange factor controlling different actin-based processes coordinates cell adhesion, cell polarity, and membrane recycling during bone degradation.

SHIP2 signaling in normal and pathological situations: Its impact on cell proliferation

Phosphoinositide 5-phosphatases are critical enzymes in modulating the concentrations of PI(3,4,5)P3, PI(4,5)P2 and PI(3,5)P2. The SH2 domain containing inositol 5-phosphatases SHIP1 and SHIP2 belong to this family of enzymes that dephosphorylate the 5 position of PI(3,4,5)P3 to produce PI(3,4)P2. Data obtained in zebrafish and in mice have shown that SHIP2 is critical in development and growth. Exome sequencing identifies mutations in the coding region of SHIP2 as a cause of opsismodysplasia, a severe but rare chondrodysplasia in human. SHIP2 has been reported to have both protumorigenic and tumor suppressor function in human cancer very much depending on the cell model. This could be linked to the relative importance of PI(3,4)P2 (a product of SHIP2 phosphatase activity) which is also controlled by the PI 4-phosphatase and tumor suppressor INPP4B. In the glioblastoma cell line 1321 N1, that do not express PTEN, lowering SHIP2 expression has an impact on the levels of PI(3,4,5)P3, cell morphology and cell proliferation. It positively stimulates cell proliferation by decreasing the expression of key regulatory proteins of the cell cycle such as p27. Together the data point out to a role of SHIP2 in development in normal cells and at least in cell proliferation in some cancer derived cells.

Global approaches for the elucidation of phosphoinositide-binding proteins

Phosphoinositide lipids (PIPns) control numerous critical biological pathways, typically through the regulation of protein function driven by non-covalent protein-lipid binding interactions. Despite the importance of these systems, the unraveling of the full scope of protein-PIPn interactions has represented a significant challenge due to the massive complexity associated with these events, including the large number of diverse proteins that bind to these lipids, variations in the mechanisms by which proteins bind to lipids, and the presence of multiple distinct PIPn isomers. As a result of this complexity, global methods in which numerous proteins that bind PIPns can be identified and characterized simultaneously from complex samples, which have been enabled by key technological advancements, have become popular as an efficient means for tackling this challenge. This review article provides an overview of advancements in large-scale methods for profiling protein-PIPn binding, including experimental methods, such as affinity enrichment, microarray analysis and activity-based protein profiling, as well as computational methods, and combined computational/experimental efforts.

IQGAP1 is a novel phosphatidylinositol 4,5 bisphosphate effector in regulation of directional cell migration

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5 bisphosphate (PIP₂) is a key lipid messenger for regulation of cell migration. PIP₂ modulates many effectors, but the specificity of PIP₂ signalling can be defined by interactions of PIP₂-generating enzymes with PIP₂ effectors. Here, we show that type Iγ phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase (PIPKIγ) interacts with the cytoskeleton regulator, IQGAP1, and modulates IQGAP1 function in migration. We reveal that PIPKIγ is required for IQGAP1 recruitment to the leading edge membrane in response to integrin or growth factor receptor activation. Moreover, IQGAP1 is a PIP₂ effector that directly binds PIP₂ through a polybasic motif and PIP₂ binding activates IQGAP1, facilitating actin polymerization. IQGAP1 mutants that lack PIPKIγ or PIP₂ binding lose the ability to control directional cell migration. Collectively, these data reveal a synergy between PIPKIγ and IQGAP1 in the control of cell migration.

How does SHIP1/2 balance PtdIns(3,4)P2 and does it signal independently of its phosphatase activity?

The number of cellular events identified as being directly or indirectly modulated by phosphoinositides dramatically increased in the recent years. Part of the complexity results from the fact that the seven phosphoinositides play second messenger functions in many different areas of growth factors and insulin signaling, cytoskeletal organization, membrane dynamics, trafficking, or nuclear signaling. PtdIns(3,4)P2 is commonly reported as a product of the SH2 domain-containing inositol 5-phosphatases 1/2 (SHIP1 and SHIP2) that dephosphorylate PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 at the 5-position. Here we discuss recent interest in PtdIns(3,4)P2 signaling highlighting its involvement in key cellular mechanisms such as cell adhesion, migration, and cytoskeletal regulation. We question and discuss the involvement of SHIP2 either as a PI 5-phosphatase or as a scaffold protein in insulin signaling, cytoskeletal dynamics, and endocytosis of growth factor receptors.

SHIP2 signalling at the plasma membrane, in the nucleus and at focal contacts

Phosphoinositide 5-phosphatases are critical enzymes in modulating the concentrations of PI(3,4,5)P(3), PI(4,5)P(2) and PI(3,5)P(2). The SH2 domain containing inositol 5-phosphatases SHIP1 and SHIP2 belong to this family of enzymes very much involved in physiopathology and development. Therefore activity and localization of the enzymes are particularly important taking into account both catalytic and non-catalytic mechanisms of the SHIP phosphatases. Several different mechanisms have been reported for SHIP2 targeting that often result from specific protein:protein interactions. In unstimulated astrocytoma cells, SHIP2 has a perinuclear and cytoplasmic localization. In serum-stimulated cells, SHIP2 can be localized at the plasma membrane and at focal contacts in polarized cells. A phosphorylated form of SHIP2 on S132 can be found in the nucleus and nuclear speckles. When present at the plasma membrane, SHIP2 may control the intracellular level of PI(3,4,5)P(3) thereby producing PI(3,4)P(2). When present in the nucleus, SHIP2 probably associates to other nuclear proteins such as lamin A/C and could potentially control nuclear PI(4,5)P(2). Finally, its presence at focal adhesions and lamellipodia could suggest a role in cell adhesion and migration. It is proposed that the complex phenotype observed in SHIP2 mutant mice in tissue development and growth could result from the addition of plasma membrane and nuclear effects consecutive to SHIP2 alteration.

IQGAP proteins reveal an atypical phosphoinositide (aPI) binding domain with a pseudo C2 domain fold

Class I phosphoinositide (PI) 3-kinases act through effector proteins whose 3-PI selectivity is mediated by a limited repertoire of structurally defined, lipid recognition domains. We describe here the lipid preferences and crystal structure of a new class of PI binding modules exemplified by select IQGAPs (IQ motif containing GTPase-activating proteins) known to coordinate cellular signaling events and cytoskeletal dynamics. This module is defined by a C-terminal 105-107 amino acid region of which IQGAP1 and -2, but not IQGAP3, binds preferentially to phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PtdInsP(3)). The binding affinity for PtdInsP(3), together with other, secondary target-recognition characteristics, are comparable with those of the pleckstrin homology domain of cytohesin-3 (general receptor for phosphoinositides 1), an established PtdInsP(3) effector protein. Importantly, the IQGAP1 C-terminal domain and the cytohesin-3 pleckstrin homology domain, each tagged with enhanced green fluorescent protein, were both re-localized from the cytosol to the cell periphery following the activation of PI 3-kinase in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts, consistent with their common, selective recognition of endogenous 3-PI(s). The crystal structure of the C-terminal IQGAP2 PI binding module reveals unexpected topological similarity to an integral fold of C2 domains, including a putative basic binding pocket. We propose that this module integrates select IQGAP proteins with PI 3-kinase signaling and constitutes a novel, atypical phosphoinositide binding domain that may represent the first of a larger group, each perhaps structurally unique but collectively dissimilar from the known PI recognition modules.

Isolation of human mitotic protein phosphatase complexes: identification of a complex between protein phosphatase 1 and the RNA helicase Ddx21

Metazoan mitosis requires remodelling of sub-cellular structures to ensure proper division of cellular and genetic material. Faults often lead to genomic instability, cell cycle arrests and disease onset. These key structural changes are under tight spatial-temporal and post-translational control, with crucial roles for reversible protein phosphorylation. The phosphoprotein phosphatases PP1 and PP2A are paramount for the timely execution of mitotic entry and exit but their interaction partners and substrates are still largely unresolved. High throughput, mass-spectrometry based studies have limited sensitivity for the detection of low-abundance and transient complexes, a typical feature of many protein phosphatase complexes. Moreover, the limited timeframe during which mitosis takes place reduces the likelihood of identifying mitotic phosphatase complexes in asynchronous cells. Hence, numerous mitotic protein phosphatase complexes still await identification. Here we present a strategy to enrich and identify serine/threonine protein phosphatase complexes at the mitotic spindle. We thus identified a nucleolar RNA helicase, Ddx21/Gu, as a novel, direct PP1 interactor. Furthermore, our results place PP1 within the toposome, a Topoisomerase II alpha (TOPOIIα) containing complex with a key role in mitotic chromatin regulation and cell cycle progression, possibly via regulated protein phosphorylation. This study provides a strategy for the identification of further mitotic PP1 partners and the unravelling of PP1 functions during mitosis.

Phosphoinositides in neuroexocytosis and neuronal diseases

Phosphoinositides (PIs) are a family of phospholipids derived from phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns), whose location, synthesis, and degradation depend on specific PI kinases and phosphatases. PIs have emerged as fundamental regulators of secretory processes, such as neurotransmitter release, hormone secretion, and histamine release in allergic responses. In neurons and neuroendocrine cells, regulated secretion requires the calcium-dependent fusion of transmitter-containing vesicles with the plasma membrane. The role played by PIs in exocytosis is best exemplified by the Ca²⁺-dependent binding of vesicular Synaptotagmin1 to the plasma membrane PtdIns(4,5)P₂, and the recently demonstrated role of PtdIns(4,5)P₂ in the mobilization of secretory vesicles to the plasma membrane. New evidence has also recently emerged of an alternative PI pathway that can control exocytosis positively (via PtdIn3P) or negatively (via PtdIns(3,5)P₂). However, the positive or negative effectors for these pathways remain to be established. Reducing PtdIns(3,5)P₂ potentiates neuroexocytosis but leads to neuronal degeneration and has been linked to certain forms of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The goal of this review is to describe the role of PIs in neuroexocytosis and explore the current hypotheses linking these effects to human diseases.

Conditional peripheral membrane proteins: facing up to limited specificity

Regulated relocalization of signaling and trafficking proteins is crucial for the control of many cellular processes and is driven by a series of domains that respond to alterations at membrane surfaces. The first examples of these domains--conditional peripheral membrane proteins--included C1, C2, PH, PX, and FYVE domains, which specifically recognize single tightly regulated membrane components such as diacylglycerol or phosphoinositides. The structural basis for this recognition is now well understood. Efforts to identify additional domains with similar functions that bind other targets (or participate in unexplained cellular processes) have not yielded many more examples of specific phospholipid-binding domains. Instead, most of the recently discovered conditional peripheral membrane proteins bind multiple targets (each with limited specificity), relying on coincidence detection and/or recognizing broader physical properties of the membrane such as charge or curvature. This broader range of recognition modes presents significant methodological challenges for a full structural understanding.

IQGAP1 and its binding proteins control diverse biological functions

IQGAP proteins have been identified in a wide spectrum of organisms, ranging from yeast to humans. The most extensively studied family member is the ubiquitously expressed scaffold protein IQGAP1, which participates in multiple essential aspects of mammalian biology. IQGAP1 mediates these effects by binding to and regulating the function of numerous interacting proteins. Over ninety proteins have been reported to associate with IQGAP1, either directly or as part of a larger complex. In this review, we summarise those IQGAP1 binding partners that have been identified in the last five years. The molecular mechanisms by which these interactions contribute to the functions of receptors and their signalling cascades, small GTPase function, cytoskeletal dynamics, neuronal regulation and intracellular trafficking are evaluated. The evidence that has accumulated recently validates the role of IQGAP1 as a scaffold protein and expands the repertoire of cellular activities in which it participates.

Phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate activity probes for the labeling and proteomic characterization of protein binding partners

Phosphatidylinositol polyphosphate lipids, such as phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate [PI(3,4,5)P₃], regulate critical biological processes, many of which are aberrant in disease. These lipids often act as site-specific ligands in interactions that enforce membrane association of protein binding partners. Herein, we describe the development of bifunctional activity probes corresponding to the headgroup of PI(3,4,5)P₃ that are effective for identifying and characterizing protein binding partners from complex samples, namely cancer cell extracts. These probes contain both a photoaffinity tag for covalent labeling of target proteins and a secondary handle for subsequent detection or manipulation of labeled proteins. Probes bearing different secondary tags were exploited, either by direct attachment of a fluorescent dye for optical detection or by using an alkyne that can be derivatized after protein labeling via click chemistry. First, we describe the design and modular synthetic strategy used to generate multiple probes with different reporter tags of use for characterizing probe-labeled proteins. Next, we report initial labeling studies using purified protein, the PH domain of Akt, in which probes were found to label this target, as judged by in-gel detection. Furthermore, protein labeling was abrogated by controls including competition with an unlabeled PI(3,4,5)P₃ headgroup analogue as well as through protein denaturation, indicating specific labeling. In addition, probes featuring linkers of different lengths between the PI(3,4,5)P₃ headgroup and photoaffinity tag led to variations in protein labeling, indicating that a shorter linker was more effective in this case. Finally, proteomic labeling studies were performed using cell extracts; labeled proteins were observed by in-gel detection and characterized using postlabeling with biotin, affinity chromatography, and identification via tandem mass spectrometry. These studies yielded a total of 265 proteins, including both known and novel candidate PI(3,4,5)P₃-binding proteins.