Gender differences in risk and promotive classifications associated with adolescent delinquency

Neurodevelopment and ages of onset in depressive disorders

How and why do clinical depressive disorders emerge in adolescence? In this Personal View, we present a neurodevelopmental theory to address causes for adolescent onsets of clinical depressive disorders. We argue that theories should account for three perplexing aspects of depressive disorders in adolescence: the episodic nature of depression; differences between sexes in rates of depression across development; and age-differentiated onsets. We consider how theories such as psychosocial acceleration, heterochronic brain development, dual-process models, glucocorticoid vulnerability hypothesis linked to early life stress, and epigenetic and genetic susceptibility might explain some aspects of adolescent depressive disorders. We argue that some synthesis between existing theories might be needed to establish a sufficient neurodevelopmental theoretical framework to explain onsets of depressive disorders in adolescence.

Self-reported family socioeconomic status, the 5-HTTLPR genotype, and delinquent behavior in a community-based adolescent population

Twin and adoption studies have demonstrated a significant contribution of both genetic and environmental factors to antisocial and delinquent behavior. Associations have been reported between the serotonin transporter (5-HTT) and aggression, and between socioeconomic status (SES), aggression, and serotonergic functions of the brain. We aimed to investigate associations between the 5-HTTLPR genotype and family SES in relation to delinquent behavior among adolescents. A total of 1,467 17- to 18-year-old students in the county of Västmanland, Sweden, anonymously completed a questionnaire and gave a saliva sample. Family SES had a U-shaped relation to delinquency, where adolescents with low and high family SES were the most delinquent. There were curvilinear interactions between the 5-HTTLPR genotype and family SES in relation to delinquency. Among individuals having high family SES, boys with the LL (homozygous for the long allele) or LS (heterozygous) genotypes and girls with the SS (homozygous for the short allele) or LS (heterozygous) genotypes showed the highest delinquency scores. Among individuals having low family SES, boys with the LL (homozygous for the long allele) genotype and girls with the LS (heterozygous) genotype showed the highest delinquency scores. The present study suggests evidence for an interaction between family SES and the 5-HTTLPR genotype in relation to juvenile delinquency.

A Longitudinal Analysis of Cumulative Risks, Cumulative Promotive Factors, and Adolescent Violent Behavior

This study examined the effects of cumulative risk and promotive factors on violent behavior across the high school years of adolescence in a sample of predominately African American urban adolescents (n = 750). Cumulative risk and promotive factor indices represented individual characteristics, and peer, parental, and familial influences. Using growth curve modeling, we describe trajectories of cumulative risk and promotive factors and test the associations between the time-varying cumulative risk and promotive factor indices and violent behavior. Higher risk was associated with higher levels of violent behavior. Higher levels of promotive factors were associated with less violent behavior and moderated the association between risk and violent behaviors. The results support the risk-protective model of resiliency. Implications for prevention are discussed.