Behavioral and cognitive correlates of exercise self-schemata

Impact of Online-Delivered eHealth Literacy Intervention on eHealth Literacy and Health Behavior Outcomes among Female College Students during COVID-19

This study examined the effects of a novel online-delivered eHealth literacy intervention to improve eHealth literacy and positive health behaviors among female college students during COVID-19. Female college students taking a physical education class were allocated to either an online-based eHealth literacy intervention group (n = 62) or a physical education class (n = 58). Weekly two-hour sessions were implemented through Zoom videoconferencing over six weeks. We measured eHealth literacy, exercise self-schemata, and health behavior outcomes (eating, sleep, and exercise) before and after the intervention. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to examine within- and between-group differences in all outcomes. The ANOVA (2 × 2) for the interaction effect of group and time showed a statistical significance in eHealth literacy and cognitive-emotional exercise self-schemata. There was a marginally significant interaction effect for exercise but none for eating and sleep. This was the first trial to examine the impact of the online eHealth literacy intervention on eHealth literacy and health behavior outcomes for college students during COVID-19. Preliminary findings indicated that the intervention showed promising effectiveness for improving eHealth literacy and promoting health behaviors among female college students.

Relationships Between University Students' Gender and Physical Activity (PA) and Their Exercise Self-Schemas, Processing of PA-Related Information, and PA Decision-Making

In the current study, we investigated the effects of gender and regular physical activity (PA) on PA decision-making and speed of information processing. We enrolled 110 university students (Mage = 20.91, SD =2.28 years) in an experiment involving two tasks and a questionnaire. One of the two tasks assessed how much participants agreed with presented PA words and phrases and the other task predicted behavior and responses to future situations. We collected and measured the participants' choices and the time they took to make them. The questionnaire, the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), consisted of exercise self-schema and PA questions. We conducted a 2 (gender: male or female) ×2 (regular PA or not) multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and found statistically significant differences between variables as a function of participants' gender (λ = .66, p < .001) and regular PA engagement (λ = .51, p < .001). In a regression analysis, we also found gender differences [males showed relationships between agreement with PA information and information processing speed for decisions on future behavior (R² = .31, F = 12.50); females showed relationships between their exercise self-schema (R² = .26, F = 18.18) and regular PA such that, in the non-regular PA group, exercise self-schema was related to reaction time in making decisions on future behavior (R² = .29, F = 11.23), and in the regular PA group, agreement with PA information was related to reaction time for PA-related words, and agreement with non-PA information (R² = .29, F = 8.91)]. These results highlight the need to consider participant characteristics when designing exercise interventions, and we present supplementary data regarding exercise self-schemas, decision-making, and the speed of processing PA information.

Maternal and child dietary intake: The role of maternal healthy-eater self-schema

BACKGROUND

Mothers play a key role in shaping the dietary intake of their young children through their own dietary intake and the foods they make available at home. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms underlying maternal food choices is crucial. Cognitions about the self as a healthy eater, referred to as healthy-eater self-schema (HESS), predict dietary intake in diverse samples, but the linkage has not been investigated in mothers and their feeding behaviors. This study examined the relationship between a maternal HESS, maternal and child intake of fruits, vegetables, saturated fat, and added sugar, and home food availability.

METHODS

A cross-sectional, descriptive design was used with mothers and their 2-5 year old children (N = 124 dyads). Kendzierski's Healthy-Eater Self-Schema questionnaire was used to measure HESS. Block Food Frequency Screeners were used to measure diets (mother and child) and the Home Environment Survey was used to measure home availability of fruits/vegetables and fats/sweets. Multiple regression and multiple mediation analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Maternal HESS was positively associated with maternal intake of fruits and vegetables, and negatively associated with intake of added sugar. Maternal HESS was not directly associated with child dietary intake, but was indirectly associated with child intake of fruits, vegetables, and added sugar through maternal intake of the same foods. Home food availability was not significantly associated with HESS.

CONCLUSION

This study found that a mother's HESS was positively associated with her diet, which was subsequently associated with aspects of her child's diet. Interventions to foster development of HESS in mothers may be an effective means to promote healthy dietary intake in mothers and their young children.

Exploring Personality the Natural Way: An Inquiry into Open-Ended Self-Descriptions

A content coding system was developed for people's open-ended self-descriptions. Self-descriptive statements of N = 174 individuals were classified into content clusters based on similarity of meaning. Those clusters, in turn, were organized into content areas of personality functioning (cognitive, motivational and emotional, self-regulatory, social, and whole personality). An analysis of the clusters indicated that: a) the most commonly used clusters described simple and positive characteristics of an individual; b) many open-ended descriptions were similar to widely studied attributes (e.g., self-esteem); but also c) some self-descriptions reflected possibly neglected areas of study (e.g., self-authenticity). Significant correlations were found between self-report scales and self-descriptions with similar meaning.

Exercise: Why It is a Challenge for Both the Nonconscious and Conscious Mind

The epidemic of physical inactivity is an important societal and individual problem. Despite the well-documented health effects of physical activity, only 22% of the population exercises regularly enough to get the physiological and psychological benefits ( S. N. Blair, 1993 , Physical activity, physical fitness, and health. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, Vol. 64, pp. 365–376.) Why does 78% fail to do so? The problem is largely psychological and attributable to the processes of nonconscious and conscious mind. This paper reviews research on how nonconscious and conscious processing affects human behavior in general and exercise behavior in particular. Although there generally is no question about the effect of the nonconscious mind on human behavior, “unconsciously operating motives” in and of themselves are incapable of igniting and sustaining this complex behavior—at least until the behavior has been repeated with regularity and long enough to become consistently prompted by situational cues (as is the case for 22% of the population). There is even some evidence to suggest that the nonconscious mind actually works against exercise by embracing cues and excuses for not exercising. A related problem for both the nonconscious and conscious mind, especially that of the occasional exerciser (54% of the population), is that exercise poses a threat to one's sense of freedom and choice (i.e., “you must do it or else”). The resultant psychological reactance leads to attempts to restore this freedom, but it is often accomplished by giving in to temptations (e.g., TV watching). Although people recognize fitness and health as important human conditions, they often pursue these goals by using exercise as a means toward another end (e.g., to lose weight). In doing so, they struggle cognitively with their need for autonomy while trying to balance it in interpersonal and leisure contexts. Such struggle depletes finite self-control resources and makes people more vulnerable to temptations. The net result is that both the nonconscious mind and the conscious mind fail to turn most people into rational thinkers and “self as doers,” who would do what is best for their health.

Deconstructing the concept of the healthy eater self-schematic: relations to dietary intake, weight and eating cognitions

This study investigated differences in dietary intake, weight status, food preoccupation, and attributions about healthy eating lapses between individuals classified as healthy eater self-schematics and nonschematics. The study also assessed whether the separate dimensions of the self-schema construct (self-description as a healthy eater and perceived importance of being a healthy eater to self-image) are related to these health outcomes. College students (N=125; 82% female) completed questionnaires assessing healthy eater self-schema status, dietary intake, weight status, food preoccupation, and lapse attributions. Results revealed that females who were classified as healthy eater self-schematics ate more fruits and vegetables, ate less junk food and had lower BMIs than nonschematics. Healthy eater self-schematics also engaged in more positive thoughts and fewer negative thoughts about food, made less stable attributions about lapses in healthy eating and endorsed more personal control over lapses. When the two dimensions of the self-schema were examined separately, self-description appeared to be more related to these outcomes than perceived importance.

Ethnic differences in exercise and leisure time physical activity among midlife women

AIM

This paper is a report of a study of factors associated with ethnic differences in exercise and leisure time physical activity levels among midlife women.

BACKGROUND

Most studies on physical activity have focused mostly on identifying correlates of physical activity. However, 'ethnicity/race' as a factor affecting exercise and leisure time physical activity has rarely been considered.

METHOD

This study was a secondary analysis of data from a larger Internet study on menopausal symptoms of midlife women from four ethnic groups in the United States of America. A total of 441 women aged 40-60 years were recruited through the Internet from 31 January 2005 to 31 December 2007. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics, chi-square analysis, analysis of variance and multiple regressions.

FINDINGS

Non-Hispanic White people had a statistically significantly higher level of leisure time physical activity than Asian Americans and Hispanics. African Americans reported the lowest level of exercise. Body mass index was inversely associated with exercise among African Americans. Menopausal symptoms were positively associated with exercise among non-Hispanic White people and African Americans. Employment and number of children had a statistically significantly inverse association with exercise among Asian Americans.

CONCLUSION

Correlates of exercise are ethnic-specific. The dual role situation of working outside and inside their homes is an important factor in explaining the lower participation of exercise among Asian Americans. Health factors influence exercise participation in non-Hispanic White people, African Americans and Hispanics. Nurses should take into account ethnic diversities when designing physical activity interventions for women.

Exercise adoption among older, low-income women at risk for cardiovascular disease

Using an expanded Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) model, we hypothesized that self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and exercise self-definition would predict exercise adoption. This secondary analysis examined data from a prospective single-group study of low-income women who received a physician screen and referral to a community-based, free exercise program. The sample included 190 older, low-income women with a mean age of 64 years, the majority of whom were African American (66%) and had at least one cardiovascular risk factor (92%). Baseline values of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and exercise self-definition were measured using instruments developed for the study. Exercise adoption was defined as the number of exercise sessions completed over 8 weeks. Our hypothesis was tested using hierarchical multiple regression. The mean number of exercise sessions completed over the 8-week period was 5.7 out of a recommended 24. Value of Exercise scores, a subscale of the Exercise Self-Definition scale, predicted exercise adoption. Self-efficacy and outcome expectations were not predictive. The significance of Value of Exercise scores reinforces the importance of expanding SCT with additional variables such as exercise self-definition. Future work should emphasize the social and environmental factors that form an important part of SCT.

Dimensions and profiles of the generalized health-related self-concept

OBJECTIVES

We explore the significance of health as a potentially self-relevant category from the perspective of dynamic self-concept theory. Our intention was to describe the dimensional structure of the generalized health-related self-concept, to identify particular prototypes of health-related self-definition, and to see if these prototypes would differ with respect to appraisals of health behaviour and subjective health.

DESIGN

We conducted a cross-sectional questionnaire study involving 545 college students (23.3% male) at the mean age of 22 years.

METHODS

The self-administered questionnaire assessed a relevant spectrum of health-related cognitions denoting their generalized declarative knowledge about their health (the generalized health-related self-concept). Additionally, participants rated their multiple health behaviour, their perceived health, and their anticipated vulnerability.

RESULTS

A principal components analysis of the health-related cognitions revealed the following five dimensions: health-protective dispositions, health-protective motivation, vulnerability, health-risky habits, and external, avoidant motivation. A two-step cluster analysis of the five components identified six profiles of health-related self-concept: careless/carefree, omnipotents, risk-takers, mentally affected, reluctant-avoidant, and medically fragile. These prototypes could be successfully reclassified (97.6%). The six profiles differed with respect to their health behaviour and subjective health appraisals.

CONCLUSIONS

The dimensional structure represents both resources and deficits with respect to an individual's health-related self-concept. An individual's profile of these dimensions might correspond to a characteristic set of particular health needs and motivations. Successful health communications should follow a complementary strategy of affirming the self-concept.

Relationships between exercise self-definitions and exercise participation among urban women in primary care

Exercising prevents the development of coronary artery disease and reduces the incidence of cardiovascular risk factors; however, the mechanisms that underlie participation in an exercise program are not well understood. On the basis of theories of the self, we hypothesized that exercise self-definitions would be significantly related to exercise participation and that such definitions would increase over time. The study sample consisted of 192 middle-aged to older women who were leading a mostly sedentary life and the majority had at least one cardiovascular risk factor. Exercise participation was defined as the number of exercise sessions completed at 8 and 24 weeks. We found an interesting pattern of significant relationships between exercise definitions and exercise participation. Six-month scores were significantly higher than baseline scores, suggesting that exercise self-definitions strengthened over time. If this result is found to be supported in future studies, nurses may want to consider assessing self-definitions when helping patients initiate and maintain an exercise program.

Physical Activity Self-Definition Among Adolescents

Since research involving adults indicates that physical activity (PA) self-definition influences PA participation, understanding PA self-definition and related factors, such as PA frequency and enjoyment, in youth is essential for designing interventions to reverse the decline in PA that occurs from childhood through adolescence. The objective of this study was to explore correlates of PA self-definition and assess differences in PA self-definition among African American and European American boys and girls in early, middle, and late puberty. A 3 (developmental stage) ¥ 2 (gender) design was used. African American and European American boys and girls, ages 9 to 17, participated. A total of 168 adolescents completed demographic data, developmental stage, and current and future PA self-definition questionnaires. Peak VO2 was obtained as a measure of physical fitness. Current PA self-definition was positively correlated with peak VO2 (p < .01) and future PA self-definition (p < .01). Males had higher current (p = .032) and future (p = .021) PA self-definition than females. The finding that boys have stronger current and future PA self-definitions than girls highlights the challenge for health professionals to enact immediate and effective measures to alter girls’ perceptions of themselves in terms of PA participation. Since current PA self-definition is also significantly correlated with future PA participation, strategies to assist girls in developing a strong PA self-definition may contribute to increased PA in their adult years.

Personal and family food choice schemas of rural women in upstate New York

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to gain conceptual understanding of the cognitive processes involved in food choice among low- to moderate-income rural women.

DESIGN

This interpretivist study used grounded theory methods and a theory-guided approach.

PARTICIPANTS/SETTING

Sixteen women aged 18 to 50 years from varied household compositions were purposefully recruited in an upstate New York rural county.

METHODS

Semi-structured interviews were conducted. Verbatim transcripts were analyzed using the constant comparative method.

RESULTS

Study participants held both personal and family food choice schemas characterized by food meanings and behavioral scripts. Food meanings encompassed self-reported beliefs and feelings associated with food. Food choice scripts described behavioral plans for regularized food and eating situations. Five personal food choice schemas (dieter, health fanatic, picky eater, nonrestrictive eater, inconsistent eater) and 4 family food choice schemas (peacekeeper, healthy provider, struggler, partnership) emerged.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The findings advance conceptual understanding of the cognitive processes involved in food choice by demonstrating the existence of different food choice schemas for personal and family food choice situations. Further study is needed on food choice schemas in different populations in various food and eating situations.

Correlates of adults' participation in physical activity: review and update

PURPOSE

To review and update the evidence relating to the personal, social, and environmental factors associated with physical activity (PA) in adults.

METHODS

Systematic review of the peer-reviewed literature to identify papers published between 1998 and 2000 with PA (and including exercise and exercise adherence). Qualitative reports or case studies were not included.

RESULTS

Thirty-eight new studies were located. Most confirmed the existence of factors already known to be correlates of PA. Changes in status were noted in relation to the influence of marital status, obesity, smoking, lack of time, past exercise behavior, and eight environmental variables. New studies were located which focused on previously understudied population groups such as minorities, middle and older aged adults, and the disabled.

CONCLUSION

The newly reported studies tend to take a broader "ecological" approach to understanding the correlates of PA and are more focused on environmental factors. There remains a need to better understand environmental influences and the factors that influence different types of PA. As most of the work in this field still relies on cross-sectional studies, longitudinal and intervention studies will be required if causal relationships are to be inferred.