Correlates of Earthquake Cognitions and Preparedness Behavior in a Victimized Population

Earthquake Threat! Understanding the Intention to Prepare for the Big One

Knowledge about how hazard-threatened individuals perceive risks and what influences their intentions to prepare is crucial for effective disaster management. We investigated (a) whether residents of objectively higher-risk earthquake areas within a city perceive greater risk, have stronger intentions to prepare, and report more preparation than residents of objectively lower-risk areas, (b) 10 antecedent factors as predictors of the intention to prepare for an earthquake, and (c) whether risk perception mediates the relations between nine antecedent factors and the intention to prepare. Notably, residents of high-risk areas did not express stronger intentions to prepare or report more preparations than did residents of low-risk areas, despite perceiving significantly greater risk. Risk perception mediated the relation between antecedent fatalism and the intention to prepare. Among the policy implications is a clear need for greater education of residents in high-risk earthquake areas.

Victimology from clinical psychology perspective: psychological assessment of victims and professionals working with victims

Victimology concerns victims of various traumas from accidents, disasters, assaults to wars. Survivors of trauma are also an area in clinical psychology since it is interested in the assessment and diagnosis of psychopathology and psychotherapy. Stress and mental health are intertwined; increased stress results in difficulties in feeling, thinking and behaving. The stress symptoms are an intrusion, avoidance, negative cognitions and mood, and arousal and reactivity. A trauma survivor might develop post-traumatic stress disorder. Healing trauma is so comprehensive that many professionals work from different aspects. From attorneys to mental health workers, many professionals deal with the aftereffects of trauma. Engaging with details of the trauma endangers not only the victims but also the professionals working with the victims. These professionals end up having psychological effects such as secondary trauma, vicarious trauma, compassion fatigue, countertransference and occupational burnout. Trauma has serious effects on its victims but not all effects are negative and paralyzing. Trauma victims might change their priorities in a way that they report more personal control over their life. This phenomenon is called posttraumatic growth. The paper aims to collaborate victimology with clinical psychology by highlighting psychopathology and psychological assessment.

Earthquake Hazard Knowledge, Preparedness, and Risk Reduction in the Bangladeshi Readymade Garment Industry

The Bangladeshi readymade garment (RMG) industry is considered the main driver of economic transformation, as it employs many unskilled and underprivileged people. However, recently, the RMG industry has faced international concern because of several building collapses and fire incidents, indicating inadequacy in the structural design and preparedness measures in the factory buildings. This research aims to understand earthquake hazard knowledge, preparedness, and emergency response, which may contribute to earthquake risk reduction in the RMG industry in Bangladesh. A survey using the methods of structured and semi-structured interviews and field observations was carried out to achieve the aims of this research. The findings suggest that 43% of these workers perceived their workplace as being a highly fire-prone environment, while 55 respondents believed that they were at risk of both fires and earthquakes. Only two percent believed that the workplaces are only at risk of earthquakes because the industries they work for have a zero-tolerance policy toward fire hazards. It was noted that the preparedness and improvement strategies were exclusively focused on fire hazards and related safety programs. Finally, the research suggests that the RMG industry may strengthen its earthquake risk reduction program by improving preparedness within the current workplace safety manuals without incurring extra effort and cost.

Geographic Distributions of Extreme Weather Risk Perceptions in the United States

Weather and climate disasters pose an increasing risk to life and property in the United States. Managing this risk requires objective information about the nature of the threat and subjective information about how people perceive it. Meteorologists and climatologists have a relatively firm grasp of the historical objective risk. For example, we know which parts of the United States are most likely to experience drought, heat waves, flooding, snow or ice storms, tornadoes, and hurricanes. We know less about the geographic distribution of the perceived risks of meteorological events and trends. Do subjective perceptions align with exposure to weather risks? This question is difficult to answer because analysts have yet to develop a comprehensive and spatially consistent methodology for measuring risk perceptions across geographic areas in the United States. In this project, we propose a methodology that uses multilevel regression and poststratification to estimate extreme weather and climate risk perceptions by geographic area (i.e., region, state, forecast area, and county). Then we apply the methodology using data from three national surveys (n = 9,542). This enables us to measure, map, and compare perceptions of risk from multiple weather hazards in geographic areas across the country.

Relationship Between Psychological Responses and the Appraisal of Risk Communication During the Early Phase of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Two-Wave Study of Community Residents in China

The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has affected hundreds of millions of people worldwide. Data collection in the ascending phase is crucial to address a rapidly evolving crisis by helping us understand the uncertain relationship between risk communication and psychological responses. Data were collected from 26 January 26, 2020, until February 17, 2020, with a mean test–retest interval of 16 days. A total of 846 adults from four residential communities in high-risk areas (Wuhan city) and low-risk areas (Zhengzhou city) were invited to complete a set of Internet-based questionnaires measuring the adoption of preventive behaviors, appraisal of risk communication, anxiety level, and susceptibility to emotional contagion. At the baseline assessment (Wave 1), 58 withdrew from the study, and 788 (433 females) completed the questionnaires. At the Wave 2 survey, 318 (185 females) adults from Wave 1 were retained. The results from cross-lagged models demonstrated reciprocal negative associations between anxiety and risk communication and between the appraisal of risk communication and the adoption of preventive behaviors. In addition, a higher appraisal of risk communication in the initial period of the outbreak mitigated the respondents' susceptibility to emotional contagion later on. Susceptibility to emotional contagion was positively associated with preventive behaviors taken. Furthermore, multiple-group structural equation modeling suggested that risk communication was more likely to affect the susceptibility to emotional contagion of people on the frontline of the outbreak than people living in low-risk areas. This study demonstrated the importance of risk communication aimed at encouraging appropriate countermeasures against virus outbreaks.

Evaluation of the Efficacy of Psychological Interventions in Promoting Preparedness to Armed Conflicts - A Randomized Controlled Study

OBJECTIVE

Despite efforts by civil defense authorities, levels of households' preparedness to emergencies remain insufficient in many countries. Engaging the public in preparedness behavior is a challenge worldwide. The purpose of this study was to explore the efficacy of psychological intervention in promoting preparedness behavior to armed conflicts in Israel.

METHODS

A randomized controlled trial (N = 381) with two control groups and three intervention groups was used. The psychological interventions studied were elevated threat perception, external reward, and manipulation of a cognitive cluster related to preparedness.

RESULTS

The results of the analysis suggest a significant effect of intervention on the increase of reported preparedness (F4,375 = 4.511, P = 0.001). The effect is attributed to the intervention group in which external reward was offered. Participants in this group were about two times more likely to report greater levels of preparedness compared to the control group (RR = 1.855; 95% CI: 1.065, 3.233).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that preparedness behavior can be promoted through external incentives. These are presumably effective motivators because they encourage preparedness while allowing subjects to retain their denial as an adaptive coping mechanism. Innovative thinking is required to overcome the psychological barriers associated with public reluctance to engage in preparedness. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2018;13:713-723).

Hydrogeological and Climatological Risks Perception in a Multi-Hazard Environment: The Case of Greece

Climate-related hazards, such as wildfires and hydrogeological phenomena, cause extensive damages and casualties around the world. Despite the recent advances and technologies for risk mitigation, it is acknowledged that public risk perception is a critical factor for these tools to succeed. Greece and the broader Eastern Mediterranean is an area where, despite the diversity of natural disasters, there is a lack of understanding of the hazard types that people are most concerned with and how they measure against other groups of hazards (i.e., geophysical). This work uses an online survey targeting Greek people, aiming to provide a better understanding of their perception of different natural hazards. Statistical results show that people consider climate-related hazards less dangerous and likely to occur than earthquakes, which occur often as zero-impact events. Laymen may thus underestimate certain risks, which may inhibit appropriate preparation. Disaster experience was found to increase threat perceptions and to motivate preparedness. However, in what concerns climate-related hazards, the effect of experience may fade out over time. Awareness activities were found to associate with higher emergency response efficacy. Males exhibit lower risk perception and higher coping appraisals. However, prioritization of risks is almost identical between genders. Implications for risk management are discussed.

Threat Perception and Public Preparedness for Earthquakes in Italy

Introduction:

Italy is prone to major earthquakes and has experienced several devastating earthquakes in the far and recent past. The objectives of this study were to assess the level of Italian households’ preparedness for earthquakes and to measure the public’s perception of the risk and its impact on preparedness behavior.

Hypothesis:

Italian households’ preparedness for earthquakes is insufficient and is influenced by different threat perception components that were assessed.

Methods:

A cross-sectional study, using an online questionnaire, was conducted in early 2018. The sample included 1,093 responders from a diverse sociodemographic background. The primary outcome was the Preparedness Index (PI), a score indicating the number of preparedness actions complied-with out of 10.

Results:

The PI’s mean was 5.26 (SD = 2.17). The recommendation most complied-with was keeping a flashlight at home (87.7%) and the least was securing the kitchen cupboards (15.1%). The PI was positively correlated with a higher sense of preparedness (r = 0.426; P <.001). The PI was higher for responders residing in high-seismic-risk areas and those who experienced a major earthquake before. The predictors of PI were: gender, age, prior experience, sense of preparedness, searching for information, and threat intrusiveness (negatively).

Conclusions:

The findings demonstrate a medium-level of preparedness; however, this might be circumstantial. Italians perceive major earthquakes to be unlikely, yet severe if and when they do occur. A validated tool in Italian now exists and can be used in future studies.

Bodas M, Giuliani F, Ripoll-Gallardo A, Caviglia M, Dell’Aringa MF, Linty M, Della Corte F, Ragazzoni L. Threat perception and public preparedness for earthquakes in Italy. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2019;34(2):114–124

[Investigation of Factors Related to Stockpiling of Oral Care Hygiene Materials in Normal Times: Internet Survey Analysis]

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to clarify the current status of stockpiling of oral care hygiene materials in case of a disaster and to determine methods to support stockpiling during disaster preparation.

METHODS

We conducted an Internet questionnaire survey on stockpiling and disaster prevention measures among 300 adults. For statistical analysis, the χ² test, Mann-Whitney U-test and Spearman rank test were employed. Logistic regression analysis was conducted to review factors related to stockpiling.

RESULTS

Among the questions on stockpiling and disaster prevention (14 of 15 items), seven items on disaster prevention measures and two on disaster prevention experiences significantly differed. Analysis of disaster prevention knowledge revealed that disaster prevention measures and disaster experiences significantly differed in terms of the presence or absence of stockpiling, albeit a positive correlation was noted with stockpiling. Logistic regression analysis was conducted with stockpiling as a dependent variable. As a result, the items 'I am aware about the hazard map of the residential area', 'I am aware about the type of oral care hygiene materials prepared for emergency' and 'Devising the living environment such that large furnitures and cupboards do not collapse during disasters' were effective.

CONCLUSIONS

Stockpiling at home is considered necessary for self-sufficiency during a disaster on the basis of the experiences in disaster management, disaster prevention knowledge and disaster prevention measures. Hence, stockpiling is a strong measure against disaster prevention along with provision of appropriate knowledge about the necessity of oral care in daily life. Disaster prevention education that empowers a population to prepare itself by implementing disaster prevention measures, such as improving the home environment, is considered effective. In addition, considering that relying on stockpiling at an individual level is ineffective, it is necessary to create mechanisms and systems that jointly manage disaster situations according to local circumstances.

Ethnicity, income, and disaster preparedness in Deep South Texas, United States

This paper examines the influence of a series of demographic and socioeconomic factors on preparedness outcomes for a sample of residents of the Rio Grande Valley in the southernmost part of Texas, United States. Data were collected as part of the regional Pulse of the Valley Study, a general social survey of south Texas residents conducted by the Center for Survey Research at the University of Texas-Rio Grande Valley. The purpose of this investigation is to understand better the effects of ethnicity and income on preparedness within a region of the US that suffers from widespread poverty and limited infrastructure and is prone to flooding and hurricanes. Taken together, the results suggest that while age, disaster experience, and income are associated with preparedness, the relationship between preparedness and ethnicity remains complex. Furthermore, policymakers should consider initiatives that address the socioeconomic and other issues that shape preparedness for a disaster.

Mitigation Policy Acceptance Model: An Analysis of Individual Decision Making Process toward Residential Seismic Strengthening

Mitigation policy is regarded as an effective strategy to achieve the purpose of building health resilience and reducing disaster risk with the current high frequency of environmental event occurrences. To enhance public acceptance of mitigation policy, the issue of decision-making behavior has been a concern of researchers and planners. In the past literature, qualitative measures employed to reveal the behavioral intention of hazard risk mitigation cause restricted outcomes due to the problem of sample representativeness and the fact that quantitative research is restricted to discuss the linear relationship between the two selected variables. The purpose of this article is to attempt to construct a Mitigation Policy Acceptance Model (MPAM) to analyze the behavioral intention of seismic risk mitigation strategies. Based on Dual Processing Theory, affective is conducted as the core variable for constructing two types of thinking processes, and the variables of risk perception, trust and responsibility are selected in MPAM from theories and past research. In this study, the mitigation policy of residential seismic strengthening, adapted in Yongkang District of Tainan, has been conducted as the case study. According to the results, the result of model fit test has confirmed the MPAM framework, and two thinking modes could be associated together when people face a risky decision-making process. The variable of affective is the most effective factor to influence each variable, and a direct effect on intention is also shown in this model. The results could provide suggestions in communication risk strategies for the government.

The Dark Side of the (Preparedness) Moon: Why Promoting Public Preparedness Remains Challenging

Despite best intentions and considerable effort, promoting households' preparedness to emergencies remains insufficiently low globally. It seems that, in some cases, particularly those in which populations are frequently exposed to any given threat, a more complex sociopsychological framework emerges – one in which classical motivators, such as threat perception cues, are no longer capable of turning salient belief into action. Recent studies suggest that this phenomenon, called victimization, has considerable implications on the efficacy of risk communication efforts and could jeopardize the success in promoting public readiness. Circumventing the psychological barriers caused by this phenomenon requires innovative approaches, such as using external incentives. The model and its implications are discussed (Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2019;13:593-595)

Natural Disasters, Social Protection, and Risk Perceptions

Natural disasters give rise to loss and damage and may affect subjective expectations about the prevalence and severity of future disasters. These expectations might then in turn shape individuals' investment behaviors, potentially affecting their incomes in subsequent years. As part of an emerging literature on endogenous preferences, economists have begun studying the consequences that exposure to natural disasters have on risk attitudes, perceptions, and behavior. We add to this field by studying the impact of being struck by the December 2012 Cyclone Evan on Fijian households' risk attitudes and subjective expectations about the likelihood and severity of natural disasters over the next 20 years. The randomness of the cyclone's path allows us to estimate the causal effects of exposure on both risk attitudes and risk perceptions. Our results show that being struck by an extreme event substantially changes individuals' risk perceptions as well as their beliefs about the frequency and magnitude of future shocks. However, we find sharply distinct results for the two ethnicities in our sample, indigenous Fijians and Indo-Fijians; the impact of the natural disaster aligns with previous results in the literature on risk attitudes and risk perceptions for Indo-Fijians, whereas they have little to no impact on those same measures for indigenous Fijians. To provide welfare implications for our results, we compare households' risk perceptions to climate and hydrological models of future disaster risk, and find that both ethnic groups over-infer the risk of future disasters relative to the model predictions. If such distorted beliefs encourage over-investment in preventative measures at the cost of other productive investments, these biases could have negative welfare impacts. Understanding belief biases and how they vary across social contexts may thus help decision makers design policy instruments to reduce such inefficiencies, particularly in the face of climate change.

Anxiety effects on disaster precautionary behaviors: A multi-path cognitive model

Previous studies have revealed a negative relationship between anxiety and health-promoting behavior. This study identified three cognitive pathways through which anxiety operates on preparedness behaviors for terrorist attacks. Preparedness was regressed on trait anxiety, perceived threat, and self-efficacy based on data from 306 adults. Mediating paths through perceived threat (positive) and self-efficacy (negative) and an independent negative path were identified. Results suggest that the anxiety/precautionary behavior relationship is more complex than previously thought, involving multiple pathways of competing directionality. Interventions to improve disaster preparedness and thus reduce disaster-related morbidity/mortality would benefit by capitalizing on this multidimensionality.

The Role of Victimization in Shaping Households’ Preparedness for Armed Conflicts in Israel

Objectives

One of the most prominent threats to the Israeli population is the risk from armed conflicts. Yet, promoting preparedness behavior proves to be highly difficult. Arguably, this is partially due to the chronic exposure of the Israeli public to this threat, a.k.a. “Victimization.” The purpose of this study was to examine whether victimization plays a prominent role in shaping preparedness behavior toward armed conflicts in Israel.

Methods

An online survey of 502 participants representing the adult Jewish population in Israel was carried out. A set of questionnaires designed to assess public perception of preparedness-affecting factors was used. The list of preparedness-affecting factors was conceptualized by an expert panel before the survey.

Results

The results suggest that low prioritization and ignoring of civil-defense instructions during routine times are leading causes for non-compliance with preparedness recommendations. Ignoring instructions is also negatively correlated with reported preparedness. Misunderstanding the threat and fearing it also seem to be important factors.

Conclusions

The results of this study support the hypothesis that victimization plays an important role in shaping preparedness behavior toward armed conflicts among Jews in Israel. The findings demonstrate the complexity of the socio-psychological perspective of preparedness behavior in victimized populations. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2018;12:67–75)

Psychological Correlates of Civilian Preparedness for Conflicts

Objectives

Preparedness for emergencies and disasters is imperative for public resilience. Previous studies have revealed low levels of civilian preparedness for conflicts. Classic behavioral models prove inapt in describing preparedness patterns in victimized populations chronically exposed to this threat. In an effort to expand this perspective, we hypothesized that other psychological constructs are correlated with preparedness.

Methods

A cross-sectional, Internet-based study was performed in Israel in early 2016. A sociodemographically diverse sample included 385 participants, Jews and Arabs. The tools included a preparedness index, sense of preparedness questionnaire, Trait Anxiety Inventory, Life Orientation Test, Behavioral Inhibition & Activation System scales, and ego defenses.

Results

The results suggested that optimistic and rational individuals reported significantly higher levels of preparedness, whereas those who scored highly on the trait anxiety scale and those with a tendency to use denial coping mechanisms reported significantly lower levels of preparedness.

Conclusions

The findings suggest that additional constructs, other than classic threat perception components, might play a key role in governing preparedness behavior. In particular, psychological manipulation of dispositional optimism or optimistic thinking might be effective in motivating preparedness behavior. Future research should explore such innovative ways to promoting preparedness. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2017;11:451–459)

Do Lessons People Learn Determine Disaster Cognition and Preparedness?

The study examines whether disaster experience and education through risk perception initiate flood and heat wave preparedness. Data were collected from 300 people, each of flood-prone and heat wave affected areas in Orissa. Results reveal that people having disaster experience and education are more prepared for flood and heat wave. More the people have prior disaster experience and education, more they perceive the risk of flood and heat wave. While increase in perceived risk of the disaster initiates flood preparedness, it does not further heat wave preparedness. Risk perception is only found to be a mediator between disaster experience, disaster-related education and flood preparedness.

Perception of the threat of War in Israel- implications for future preparedness planning

Background

It has been recently reported that the preparedness of the Israeli public to a war scenario is mediocre. These findings suggest a need to study the psychosocial mechanisms behind individual motivation to engage in preparedness behavior. One component of these mechanisms is the perception of threat. The purpose of this study is to portray the perception of the threat of war by the Israeli public and to deduce possible implications for resilience-promoting policies.

Methods

Portions of the data accumulated in a telephone-based random sampling of 503 households (representing the Israeli population) performed in October 2013 were utilized to examine the perception of the threat of war by Israelis. The questionnaire was used to examine the level of household preparedness, as well as attitudes toward perception of threat, preparedness responsibility, willingness to search for information, and sense of preparedness. Statistical analysis was performed to determine the correlations between different components of threat perception, and to evaluate the preparedness promoting features of specific perception factors.

Results

The data suggest that the perception of threat is influenced by different socio-demographic factors. In particular, age, religion and education seem to play an important role in the perception of threat. Compared to data collected almost a decade ago, the likelihood perception and threat intrusiveness rates were significantly reduced. The regression analysis suggests that perception of the severity of the impact on a family’s routine and willingness to search for information, two known preparedness promoting factors, can be predicted by various socio-demographic and threat perception components.

Conclusion

The data suggest that the Israeli public, post the Second Lebanon War (2006) and the Gaza conflicts of 2009 and 2012, perceives the probabilities of war and being affected by it as diminished. The Israeli public demonstrates what can be considered as the unique characteristics of a war-victimized population. Implications for a future resilience-promoting policy were discussed.

A review of risk perceptions and other factors that influence flood mitigation behavior

In flood risk management, a shift can be observed toward more integrated approaches that increasingly address the role of private households in implementing flood damage mitigation measures. This has resulted in a growing number of studies into the supposed positive relationship between individual flood risk perceptions and mitigation behavior. Our literature review shows, however, that, actually, this relationship is hardly observed in empirical studies. Two arguments are provided as an explanation. First, on the basis of protection motivation theory, a theoretical framework is discussed suggesting that individuals' high-risk perceptions need to be accompanied by coping appraisal to result in a protective response. Second, it is pointed out that possible feedback from already-adopted mitigation measures on risk perceptions has hardly been considered by current studies. In addition, we also provide a review of factors that drive precautionary behavior other than risk perceptions. It is found that factors such as coping appraisal are consistently related to mitigation behavior. We conclude, therefore, that the current focus on risk perceptions as a means to explain and promote private flood mitigation behavior is not supported on either theoretical or empirical grounds.

Communication, neighbourhood belonging and household hurricane preparedness

This paper reports on an examination of data on how local residents in Tuscaloosa, a mid-sized city in the state of Alabama, United States, responded to Hurricane Ivan of September 2004. The evaluation revealed that an integrated connection to community-level communication resources-comprising local media, community organisations and interpersonal networks-has a direct impact on the likelihood of engaging in pre-hurricane preparedness activities and an indirect effect on during-hurricane preparedness activities. Neighbourhood belonging mediated the relation between an integrated connection to community-level communication resources and during-hurricane preparedness activities. Neighbourhood belonging was determined to increase the likelihood of taking preparedness actions during Hurricane Ivan, but not prior to it. In addition, we discovered an interesting pattern for two different types of risk perceptions: social and personal risk perceptions. Social risk perceptions increase the likelihood of taking preventative steps before a hurricane while personal risk perceptions are positively related to engaging in preventative action during a hurricane.

ARE FATALISM AND OPTIMISM AN OBSTACLE TO DEVELOPING SELF-PROTECTING BEHAVIORS? STUDY WITH A TURKISH SAMPLE

This study investigates the differences in self-protecting behaviors (SPB) related to earthquakes and traffic accidents in terms of demographic characteristics, having experiences of these events, fatalistic view, and optimistic expectations among a cohort of Turkish people (N = 398). Results show that SPB of the participants vary according to the interaction among gender, marital status, number of children, and to the interaction among personal experiences of traffic accident and/or earthquake, and relatives/friends' experiences of traffic accidents. The results of regression analysis showed that marital status, gender and optimism predict SPB.

IMPACT OF A COMMUNITY DISASTER AWARENESS TRAINING PROGRAM IN TURKEY: DOES IT INFLUENCE HAZARD-RELATED COGNITIONS AND PREPAREDNESS BEHAVIORS

A community disaster training program focusing on earthquakes, floods and landslides was implemented in Çankiri, Turkey, in 2002. It covered mitigation, preparedness and response aspects of natural disaster management. Four thousand community members participated in the training program delivered by 95 local trainers. This study evaluated the impact of participation in this program. One year later, 400 randomly selected participants in the training program and a comparable sample of 400 community members who did not participate in any disaster training program (nonparticipants) were surveyed. Disaster-related cognitions (i.e., disaster expectation, worry about future disasters, loss estimations if a disaster occurs, beliefs in the possibility of mitigation and preparedness) and reported preparedness behaviors were assessed. The relationship of sociodemographic, previous disaster experience, anxiety and locus of control variables with disaster-related cognitions and behaviors was examined. Results showed that participants in the training program had more disaster expectation, worry and loss estimation and more preparedness behaviors. Results of regression analyses, examining the relationship of the variables of the study with disaster cognitions, affect and actual preparedness behaviors showed that gender, education, being a participant in the training program, anxiety and locus of control are important variables related to different kinds of disaster-related cognitions. However, reported preparedness behaviors were quite low and this result needs to be viewed with caution. These results have important implications for the modification of programs for targeting sustainable behavioral change, which is likely to reduce the impact of future disasters.

A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTS ON SURVIVORS OF THE 1999 EARTHQUAKE IN TURKEY

In the 17 August 1999 Kocaeli Earthquake about 20,000 people died and 3,000,000 were affected either directly or indirectly. A survey of earthquake victims in Kocaeli and Adapazari (two cities in North-Western Turkey) was conducted 8 months after this major earthquake to find out its physically and psychologically destructive effects. For this purpose a questionnaire containing 25 questions was given to 800 people in Kocaeli and Adapazari where the most destruction and greatest number of deaths occurred. Results indicate that changes in expectations from life after an earthquake are highly correlated with gender, marital status, and education level